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PLANT 
PROPAGATION 

Greenhouse and 
Nursery Practice 



M^' G^ K A I N S 

Professor of Horticulture, Peiinsvlnania State College 




NEW YORK 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
1916 



^3i\i 



Copyright, 1916, by 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

A// Rights Reserved 



4i: 



S^ 



Printed in U. S A 

MAY 24 IbiB 



ICU4331.47 . 



PREFACE 

WITHIN the last few years so many discoveries 
of new facts have been made by plant investi- 
gators, so many short-cuts and "wrinkles" worked 
out ])y plant propagators, and so many nursery, green- 
house and garden methods simplified or made more effec- 
tive, that books hitherto available on plant propagation 
are now out of date. Nurserymen and other propagators 
who have not been able to keep their eyes upon the 
whole field have been calling for a book which will give 
them the best of these methods and "wrinkles" in the 
comparatively small compass of a single volume. 

At the same time there has been a more and more 
insistent call for a volume that will not only include the 
character of information called for by nurserymen and 
other plant propagators, but also discuss the subject of 
plant propagation from the standpoint of fundamental 
principles and include the latest conclusions advanced by 
investigators throughout the world. 

With these two main objects in view the author has 
brought together the latest information on all branches of 
practical and theoretical plant propagation so as to make 
a volume that will appeal with equal force to the pro- 
fessional propagator and to the teacher of plant propaga- 
tion in agricultural colleges and schools at home and 
abroad. The former will be most attracted by the new 
methods and short cuts which will make for efficiency ; 
the latter will appreciate the convenience of arrangement, 
the numerous illustrations and the large list of suggested 
practicums (page 292). To professional propagator, 
teacher and amateur the plant lists and condensed rules 
for propagation will also be specially interesting. 

Literature of propagation is abundant, though much 



VI 



PREFACJ-: 



is necessarily repetitive. The best way to get in touch 
with the work clone since 1888 is by means of the Jixperi- 
ment Station Record of the United States Department of 
Agriculture at Washington. Iliis is a technical review 
of the world's scientific literature pertaining to agricul- 
ture. Two volumes, of six monthly numbers each, are is- 
sued annually at a subscription price of $1.00 a volume, 
with a restricted free distribution to libraries, government 
and state agricultural inxestigators, etc. It abstracts and 
indexes the current agricultural literature, not only of the 
United States Department of Agriculture and of the ex- 
periment stations, but the more important periodical and 
book publications of the world. Extensive and minutely 
detailed indexes are published semi-annually and assem- 
bled into combined indexes from time to time. Bv means of 



Nursery and Florist Industries of the United States 
(Figures from Census of 1910.) 





Year 


Fls. & Pits. 


Nursery 
Prods. 


Acreage 


1909 
1899 


18,248 
9,307 

96.1 


80,618 




59,492 


Increase % 




35.5 


Value 


1909 
1899 


$34,872,329 
18,758,864 

85.9 


$21,050,822 
10,123,873 


Increase % 




107.9 


Acreage per establishment 


1909 
1899 


$3,286 
3,771 


$2,132 
2,028 


Acre value _ _ . 


1909 
1899 


$1,911 

2,015 


$261 




170 



these indexes the searcher may easily post himself as 
to the scientific work reported on any agricultural subject 
in the least possible time. Tn the ])reparation of this 



I'RKFACK Vli 

\olunie free use has been made of the J*2xperiment Station 
Record, from which many passages have been copied, 
more or less condensed. Most of those relating to foreign 
and some concerning American work have been thus 
secured. The majority of these have been set in small 
type to avoid too frequent references in the text to the 
source of information. Where possible the original 
sources were sought and quotations or synopses made 
first hand. 

The work of Lucien Daniel, so frequently presented 
in this volume, is likely to effect a revolution among tra- 
ditional grafting doctrines, but this revolution will prob- 
ably be slow in its movement because it must not be ac- 
cepted without repeated investigation. Daniel's theories, 
though based upon facts, are naturally doubted by many 
plant propagators or are only partly credited. Yet in 
practice many of them have already been justified. Herr 
I^indemuth of the Royal University Garden at Berlin has 
supported some of them by his investigations and other 
investigators in Europe, Australia and America have 
thrown additional light upon the general subject of plant 
])ropagation. Considering the importance and the extent 
of the nursery and florist business, as shown by the last 
census of the United States, it is evident that competition 
between establishments will keep plant propagators on 
the qui vive to test new theories and practices and to 
adopt all those that will tend toward higher efficiency and 
economy of production. This fact is attested by the very 
generous response to requests for aid and suggest i(~in 
made l)y nurserymen in many states. This aid the author 
gratefully acknowledges. 

Special thanks are due Mr. B. F. Williamson of 
New York who dre.w almost all of the pen and ink 
sketches; to Mr. E. T. Kirk, photographer at the Penn- 
sylvania State College for many of the photos not special- 
ly referred to below; to Mr. J. R. Bechtel of the horticul- 
tural department staff at the college for pictures taken in 



Vlll TREFACE 

the Henry A. Dreer g-reenhouses at Riverton, N. J.; to 
Mr. L. F. Reese and Mr. H. M. Hills, also members of 
the staff, for many helpful suggestions as to outdoor and 
indoor propagation respectively ; to the A. T. de la Mare 
Company of New York for the set of pictures detailing 
hyacinth propagation ; and to the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and to experiment stations and 
propagating estalDlishments which supplied the illustra- 
tions noted in the list of acknowledgments printed else- 
where. 

The author has had too long an experience in writing 
and editing books and articles to suppose that this volume 
is perfect. He therefore earnestly requests that readers 
who note any least error of statement or typography will 
kindly notify him or the publishers so corrections may 
be made in subsequent editions. In the hope, however, 
that such errors are few and that the volume will meet 
a long-felt need the author confidently commends it to 
plant propagators and students of plant propagation. 

M. G. KAINS. 

State College, Ta., March 1, 1916. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENT 



The following individuals, institutions and business 
houses have supplied the illustrations referred to by 
figures opposite their names. 

J. R. Bechtel, State College, Pa., photos taken in greenhouses of 
Henry A. Dreer at Riverton, N. J. 

1, 3, 10, 15, 18, 27, 44. 76, 88, 89, 12(3, 199. 

Minnesota Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn. 

8, 41, 84, 93, 198 

The Ball Manufacturing Co., Glenside, Pa. _: 12, .'.0, SO 

The Cloche Company, New York 17 

Royal Palm Nurseries, Oneco, Fla Froiitisl^iece, 2"), 85 

Michigan Agricultural College. East Lansing, Mich. 

28, 141 (center picture) 

W. N. Scarff, New Carlisle, O. 29, 100 

H. F. Michell, Philadelphia, Pa 51, 94 

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 62, 64, 05, 70 

A. T. de la Mare Co., New York 60, 67, 68, 69 

Lord and Burnham Co., New York 78, 79, 80 

Storrs and Harrison Co., Painesville O. 83, 110, 120 

California Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. 

91, 105, 100, 107, 151, 155, 178, 181, 189, 191, 201 

Ohio State University Extension Dept., Columbus, O. 

103, 117. 170 

Harrison's Nurseries, Berlin, Md. 112, 145. 203, 200, 2i:'. 

Massachusetts Agricultural College, Horticultural Dept., Am- 
herst, Mass. __- 116, 121. 122, 123, 124, 125, 132 

Kelly Brothers, Dansville, N. Y. 128, 211. 212 

New York State Experiment Station. Geneva, N. Y. 

129, 157, 176, 187, 194 
Isaac Hicks and Son. Westbury, N. Y. 

131, 139, 144, 148. 154, 100, 164, 183 
Maloney Brothers and Wells Company, Dansville, N. Y. 133, 173, 208 



X ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

SanuK-l I'l-aser, Gencsco, N. Y. 134, 150, 161, 180, 193 

Slark Ih-otliers' Nursery, Louisiana, Mo 137, 152, 159, 165, 169 

Crccning Brothers' Nursery, Monroe, Mich., 

150, 167, 171, 174, 207, 209, 210 

Meehan's Nurseries, Dresher, Pa. 185, 197 

Chase Nursery Co., Huntsville, Ala. 158 

Horticultural Department, Pennsylvania State College, 

State College, Pa. 2, 5, 6, 21, 22, 31, 32, 33, 34, 39, 40, 43, 45, 

46, 47, 52, 56, 57. 58, 60, 63, 73, 89, 90, 92, 95, 101, 102, 104, 109, 

114, 115, 135, 136, 146, 190, 196, 202. 
Department of Experimental Pomology, Pennsylvania State 

College, State College, Pa. 182 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 
Introduction ..... 

CHAPTER n 
Germination ..... 

CHAPTER HI 
Germination and Longevity of Seeds 

CHAPTER IV 
Seed Testing ..... 

CHAPTER V 
Potting ..... 

CHAPTER VI 
Propagation by Buds — Layerage . 

CHAPTER VII 
Bottom Heat .... 

CHAPTER VIII 
Cuttage ..... 

CHAPTER IX 

("lasses of Cuttings 

CHAPTER X 
Grafiage — General Considerations . 

CHAPTER XI 
Is Graftage Devitalizing? 

CHAPTER XII 
Daniel's Experiments and Conclusions 



Page 

. 1 

. 20 

. 36 

. 40 

. 54 

. 64 

. 86 

. 95 

. Ill 

. 131 

. 158 

. 159 



Xll 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER XIII 
General Points Concerning Fruit Tree Stocks 

CMAPTER XIV 
Stock and Cion Handling 

CHAPTER XV 
Grafting Waxes, Wound Dressings, etc, . 

CHAPTER XVI 
Methods of Grafting .... 

CHAPTER XVII 
Methods of Budding .... 

CHAPTER XVIII 
Nursery Management 

CHAPTER XIX 
Laws Affecting Nurser^^ Stock 

Suggested Practicums 

Index to Plant List 

General Index . , . . 



Page 

170 

191 

221 

227 

255 

269 

287 
292 
309 
319 





Condensed Cultural Instructions 


Tables 


Page 


1 


Annuals and Perennials Grown From Seed 


. 300 


2 


Woody Plants .... 


. 302 


3 


Evergreens .... 




. 303 


4 


Vines . , , . . 




. 303 


5 


Hardy Perennials 




. 304 


6 


Bulbs, Corms and Tubers 




. 304 


7 


Greenhouse and House Plants 




. 305 


8 


Ferns ..... 




. 305 


9 


Palms ..... 




. 306 


10 


Water Plants .... 




. 306 


11 


Orchids ..... 




. 307 


12 


Cacti ..... 




. 308 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 



Frontispiece, Slat Shed in Florida Nursery 
Making Cuttings in Big Commercial Greenhou 
Tiger Lily and Bulblets .... 

Pricking Out Plants in Shaded Cold Frames 
Cracked Soil ...... 

Weeding Potted Plants in Cold Frame . 
Spotting Board ..... 

Lath House for Summer Propagation . 
Germination in Cloth .... 

Brush Screen to Shade Plants Out of Doors 

Pricking Out Seedlings in Flat 

Pot Plunging ..... 

Two Styles of Plant Protectors or "Forcers" 

Characteristic Forms of Seedlings . 

Seed and Bulb Drying Shed . 

Shades for Outdoor Propagating Beds . 

Cutting Frame ..... 

Glass Protectors for Outdoor Planting . 
Propagating Bench Shaded with Newspapers 
Deep Planting Effects .... 

Row Makers and Firming Board . 
Kentucky Coffee Tree Seedling 
Students at Pennsylvania State College . 
Dibbles, Their Use and Abuse 
Paper Plant Protector .... 

View in Florida Nursery 

Seed Study Cards ..... 

Nelumbium (Lotus) Propagation . 
Vegetable Plant Beds .... 

California Privet in Ohio Nursery . 
^^'rinkles in Growing Plants in l^lats 
Two Styles of Trowels .... 

Effective Means of Hastening (iermination 
xiii 



Page 



se 



2 

3 
5 
6 

7 
8 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
18 
21 
22 
23 
24 
26 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
34 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 



xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIUNS 

Fiff. Page 



'S'S Rhizomes . . . . 

34 Potting Rooted Geranium 

35 Small Scale Seed Testing . 

36 Elaborate Propagating Oven . 

37 Simple Propagating Oven 

38 Sand Box Seed Germinator .^ 

39 Labels and Methods of Marking 

40 Box Method of Steam Sterilizing Greenhouse 

Soil 

41 Sterilized vs Unsterilized* Soil 

42 Frames for Straw Mat Making 

43 Work in the Cutting Bench ... 

44 Potting Soil Mixed and Under Cover . 

45 Sifting Soil for Potting .... 

46 Greenhouse Soil Sieves .... 

47 Tomato Plants in Pa^^er and Earthenware Pot 

48 Wrong and Right Ways to Eill Pots . 

49 Shutters for Covering Hotbeds and Cold Frames 

50 Removing Plant From Pot . 

51 Pot Storage Out of Doors . 

52 Flat Full of Plants Ready for Transplanting 

53 Common Layerage .... 

54 Tricks in Transplanting .... 

55 Layering of Various Kinds . 

56 Black Raspberry Rooted Tip . 

57 Homemade Layering Pot 

58 Chinese Layers ..... 

59 Styles of Layering Pots .... 

60 Strawberry Plants Ready for Setting . 

61 Trimming Strawberry Roots . 

62 Tulip Planting in Washington State . 

63 Classes of Bulbs ..... 

64 Hyacinths Pro]:)agated Naturally . 

65 Knife Used to ''Scoop" Hyacinth Bulbs . 

66 Hyacinth Pr(»])agation .... 
()7 flyacinth Propagation .... 
68 Hyacinth Propagation .... 



42 
43 
44 
44 
44 
45 
46 



LIST OF ILLLSTKATiOJSIS 



Vie. 

69 Scooped Hyacinth Biill)s 

70 Bulb "Scooping" Machine 

71 Sweet Potato Propagation 

72 Fire-Heated Hotbed for Sweet Potato Plant 

Starting ..... 

73 Irish Potatoes Sprouting 
7-4 Straw Mat for Covering Hotbeds and Cold 

Frames ..... 

75 Making a Concrete Hotbed . 

76 "Sweat Box" for Propagating . 

77 Pipe Warmed Hotbed . 

78 Single Light Melon Frame , 

79 One Light Forcing Frame 

80 Hotbed "Knocked Down" to Show Constructi 

81 Glass-Covered Cutting Frame 

82 Sweet Potatoes and Vine 

83 Two Styles of Cold Frames . 

84 Shifting Plants .... 

85 Propagating Sheds in Florida Nursery 

86 Garden Flat and Plants Grown in It 

87 Stock Plants of Croton . 

88 Propagation by Means of Cuttings . 

89 Red Raspberry Sucker Plants 

90 Method of Potting 

91 Formation of Roots 

92 Odd \\'ays of Starting Cuttings . 

93 Packing for Shipment . 

94 Tile-Bottomed Greenhouse Bench . 
Double Pot of Cuttings . 
A>ntilated Cutting Pot . 
Nursery Beds .... 
Blackberry Plants .... 
Cutting Ready for Burying . 
Transplanting ALichine in Operation 
Carnation Cuttings 

Odd Ways of Starting Plants from Cuttings 
Gcxxseberry Cuttings , . . , 



79 

80 

81 

82 
83 

86 

87 

88 

89 

89 

90 

n 90 

91 

91 

92 

93 

94 

96 

97 

98 

99 

100 

102 

103 

10 ^ 

105 

107 

108 

110 

111 

112 

113 

114 

115 

116 



XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

104 Students in the Pennsylvania State College 

Greenhouse ...... 117 

105 Callusing Bed for Cuttings and Root Grafts 118 

106 Plan of Callusing Bed 119 

107 Stand for Making Graft and Cutting Bundles . 120 

108 Root and Bulb Storage Cellar on a Hill Side . 121 

109 Potting 122 

110 Field Planting of Potted Dahlias . . .123 

111 Green Wood for Cuttings .... 124 

112 Budding Nursery Stock 126 

113 Various Styles of Watering Pots . . . 127 

114 Bryophyllum Leaf 128 

115 Rooted Gloxinia Leaf ..... 129 

116 Sections of Grafts ...... 131 

117 Side Graft 132 

118 Winter Course Students Making Root Grafts 134 

119 Precocious Cleft Grafts . . ^ . . .135 

120 Tree Peddlers' Sheds at Nursery , . .136 

121 Diagrams of Graft and Bud Cross Sections . 137 

122 Section of Apple Grafts 138 

123 Plum Grafts Showing Continuous Layers 

[ of New Wood 139 

124 Cherry Cion on Plum Stock . . . '. 140 

125 Defective Pear Bud Graft on Quince Stock . 140 

126 Propagation in Greenhouses .... 142 

127 Weeping Mulberry on Erect Stem . . . 143 

128 Digging Two- Year Nursery Trees by Horse 

Power 144 

129 Cuttings and Whip Graft . . . .145 

130 Two-Year Spy Budded Trees . . . .147 

131 Burlapped for Shipment .... 147 

132 Greatly Magnified Section Through Young 

Graft 148 

133 Steam Tree Digger in Big Nursery . . . 150 

134 Uniform Block of One- Year Budded Bartlett 

Pears 152 

135 Stages of Cleft Grafting 154 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



XVll 



Fiff. Page 

VUi Young Apple Root Graft . . . .160 

137 Graft Wrapping Machine . . . .161 

i:{8 Grafters' or Biulders' Kit . . . .161 

139 Digging Large 'l^'ees for Shipment . . . 162 

UO Cutting on Dahlia Tuber .... 164 

141 Swellings Due to Graftage .... 165 

142 Bordeaux Mixing for Small Nursery . . 166 

143 Handy Style of Tree Caliper .... 167 

144 \\hy'Root Pruning Is Desirable . . . 168 

145 Tree Digger at Work in Pear Nursery Row 170 

146 A\'ire Protector Against Mice and Ral)bits . 172 

147 Bundles of Cions for Shipment . . . 173 

148 Planting a Burlapped Evergreen . . . 174 

149 Heeling-in Trees for Winter Storage . . 177 

150 Peach Pit Planter 178 

151 Graft Planting 179 

152 Nursery Tree Digger ..... 179 

153 Moving Large Trees ..... 180 

154 Transplanting in Loose Soil .... 181 

155 Herbaceous Grafting and Budding . . . 182 

156 Hand Method of Planting Nursery Stock . 184 

157 Grape Grafting ...... 185 

158 Negro Women Are Largely Employed in 

Southern Nurseries ..... 187 

159 Stages in Grafted Apple Tree Production . 188 

160 Large Trees Are Conveniently Handled by 

Truck 190 

161 Spading in Nursery Stock . . . .192 

162 First Pruning of Budded Tree . . .193 

163 Street Tree Specifications .... 194 

164 Trimming an Ornamental Tree for Form . . 197 

165 Bundle of Whole Root Grafts . . . .198 

166 Grafted Chestnut Bearing at Two Years . . 199 

167 "Sprouting" Budded Nursery Stock . . 201 

168 Three Unusual Styles of Grafting . . .202 

169 Unpacking and Heeling-in Nursery Stock . 203 

170 Bark Gra'ftin- in A^arious Stages '. . . 205 



XVlll 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Fig. 

171 Trees Stacked in Frost-Proof Nursery Cellar 

172 English "Cleft" Graft . 

173 Packing Nursery Stock for Shipment 

174 Nursery Storage House Scenes . 

175 Three Methods of Bench Grafting Grapes 

176 Grafted Grape Vine 

177 Grafting Conifers .... 

178 Grafted Grapes .... 

179 Two Styles of Crown Grafting 

180 Trencher and Row Marker . 

181 Gauge for Cutting Grape Stocks . 

182 Nursery Tree Pests 

183 Large Trees Baled for Shipment . 

184 Smith's Improved Method of Grafting 

185 Skein of Raffia .... 

186 Inarching ..... 

187 Popular Grafting Methods . 

188 Various Styles of Grafting Knives . 

189 Tongue Grafting .... 

190 Students Planting Root Grafts 

191 Whip Grafts with Too Much Callus 

192 Nursery Dibbles .... 

193 Firming Newly Planted Grafts 

194 Grafting and Budding Tool Kit . 

195 Side and Terminal Grafts 

196 Newly Sprouted Cleft Graft . 

197 Large Tree Caliper 

198 Packing Shrubs and Trees in Bale . 

199 Bottle Grafting .... 

200 Uncommon Methods of Budding . 

201 Graft Planting Methods 

202 The Process of Shield Budding 

203 Securing Bud Sticks 

204 Various Styles of Budding Knives . 

205 Bud Sprout Tied to Stock . 

206 Cold Box Method of Storing Cion Wood 

207 Methods of Digging Nursery Stock 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XIX 

Fig. I'agf 

208 Modern Method ui Digging- Nursery Stock . 270 

209 Up-to-date Nursery Spraying ( )uttit . . 274 

210 Trees in Fumigation House Ready for Fumi- 

gation ....... 276 

211 Apple Tree Grades 281 

212 Sour Cherry Trees 283 

213 Digging California Privet with 10-Mule Team 288 



CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

1. Plant propagation is the multiplication or increase 
ill number of plants in the perpetuation of the species. 
As applied by man, it includes knowledge of the proper 
time, place and manner in which best results may be 
secured. Fundamentally it is based upon (a) certain 
natural laws or principles which constitute the science, 
and (b) certain methods of manipulation which con- 
stitute the art of the processes as a whole. 

2. Art and science contrasted. — Art is merely the 
knowledge of methods without reference to reasons 
whereby results may be secured. It therefore implies 
skill gained through practice. Science deals with the 
underlying reasons for certain forms of procedure, and 
the conditions which affect the process without consid- 
ering the skill involved in manipulation. 

To illustrate: A workman in a nursery (Fig. 110) may easily 
transplant 4.000 potted dahlia plants in a day of 10 hours without 
knowing anything specific of the underlying principles; whereas, 
the proprietor may know the principles and give proper orders for 
their application without being able to transplant half as many plants 
in the same time, yet he may be a master workman because of his 
knowledge of both the art and the science. The art is best acquired 
by following the example of a skilled workman ; the science best 
from books and instructors. 

3. Natural and artificial methods. — All methods em- 
ployed by man are adaptations or improvements upon 
natural methods, instances of the application of which 
may be found in nature. For this reason they should 
hardly be called artificial, though they are often so termed. 

4. Natural methods of propagation differ in the three 
general classes of plants. Annuals and biennials all 
propagate themselves by seeds, of which they usually pro- 
duce an abundance. They are not propagated artificially 



2 J'l.ANT I'KOI'ACA ri()\' 

l)y any asexual nu-lliods; ("irsl, he-causf tlu' ahiindaiioc of 
sci'd obviates llu- need of doiiij^' so, and, second, heeause 
few of llieni (an l)e so pi'opaj^aled vviMionI dillienlly. 

Many warm (Innate plants nsed for" ornamental hed- 
<\\u^ in ^ardi'ns (colens, j^eraninm, aeliyranthes), thouj^h 
pereimiais in their native eonntries, are made to live as 
"sloi-l< plants" (llf)) iVoni year to year in j^reenhouses 
lliou^li out of doois tliey are lreat(.'d as annuals. They 
are, iherefore, so propaj^aled. 

I'erennials may or may not ])ro])a.L;ate hy seeds. They 
ma\ , Iheicfore, he propa,L;ate(| hy one or the other or hoth 
these methods accordini; to eoiu'enienee, economv or 
some other consideiat ion. W hen they do not pro])aj.;at(.' 




FIG. I— MAKINC CUrilNCS IN KIC COMMF.RCIAl. GREENHOUSE 
Tlio tuiiii on tho left is iloin;; llu- "i'oiit;li work"; tin- nuiii on the liKht is "Hnishini;." 



hy seeds, they do so by buds, of which they ii"enerall>' 
pro(luei> an ahundauee. either Ujion the branehes and 
sometimes the leaxes, or on roots or other undergTound 
l)ails. Thus, while the parent i)erennial ])laut may die. 
man (and sometimes the plant itself) may take advan- 
tam" of either its si'eds or its buds in peri)etuation. 



iWTKUDlK "HON 3 

I'"()r iiistaiuc. llic undtTKrouiifl stems of (|iiack grass and bind- 
weed are cai)alile of producing a new plant from every joint, as 
every farmer and gardener knows to iiis sorrow. Again, should it 
lie deemed necessary, the California i)ig tree which at the estimated 
age of r>,()()0 years is steadily becoming extinct, thanks largely to 
human activity, might be given another 5,()()()-year start by propagat- 
ing it from its buds by cuttings (iMg. 99). The process might again 
l)e repeated "id centuries later and so on without a limit. 




nntpi;^A 



FIG. 2— TIGER LIl.Y AND BUI.BLETS 
I. Notice bulblets in leaf axiles. 2. Bulblets rooting a few days after falling of! 

plants. 

5. Life cycles of plants. — Every plant normally passes 
l.hrougli a lite cycle or history. The seed gernihiates or 
sprouts; the plant vegetates, blooms, bears seed and 

I sooner or later dies. Lite cycles varv in duration from 
I "■■■■" 



4 PLANT PROPAGATION 

centuries (big trees, giant redwood of California and cer- 
tain species of oak and pine). Under normal (or natural) 
conditions, the duration of the life cycle of any species 
may vary considerably because perhaps of inherited vigor 
or environment or both. 

For instance, in a sowing of garden carrots a few plants may "run 
to seed" the first season, though the general life cycle of this veg- 
etable is two years ; conversely, some annuals, as radish, may fail to 
seed the first year, but send up flower stalks the following season. 
Such cases are, however, exceptional. 

So far as know^n, no plant lives indefinitely, though by 
the application of certain methods of propagation exist- 
ence may be continued beyond the duration of the normal 
life cycle of the plant so treated. 

For instance, the geranium, which is normally a warm climate 
plant, easily killed in cold climates by frost, may be propagated liy 
means of cuttings, and thus not only its numbers increased indef- 
initely, but its life thus extended by asexual generation. In one 
sense this is not strictly extending the life cycle of the individual 
plant, for the original stem and roots are generally thrown away as 
having served their purpose. 

Because all plants normally reach the limits of their 
life cycles, some method of propagation is necessary if 
they are to be perpetuated ; otherwise they will be lost. 
To prevent this contingency among flowering plants, 
nature usually provides ample seed, though in some cases 
asexual methods have been developed. Strawberries 
propagate by means of runners (102) ; certain dogwoods 
by stolons (123) ; black raspberries by layers (9G) ; 
houseleeks by rosettes (126) ; cannas by rhizomes (122) ; 
banyan trees by aerial roots from limbs; mangroves by 
their "knees" or prop roots; Irish potatoes by tubers 
(128) ; and so on. 

6. The term environment is used to include all the ex- 
ternal influences that, as a whole, affect a living organism 
in any way. Among the principal factors that make up 
environment are heat, light, moisture, and food supply. 

7. Duration of life cycle determines the three general 
groups of plants ; annuals, biennials and perennials. 



INTRODUCTION 5 

a. Annuals complete their cycle in one season or less — 
oats, radish, cosmos, purslane. 

1). Biennials require two growing seasons, or parts of 
two — hollyhock, turnip, mullein. The root lives through 
the winter of a cold climate or has a dormant period in a 
warm or arid one, and resumes activity when -conditions 
again 1)ecome favorable to growth. Before the second 
season of growth closes they mature their seeds and die. 

c. Perennials live from year to year and produce seed 




FIG. 3— PRICKING OUT PLANTS IN SHADED COLD FRAME 

The men have to bend over to the level of their feet to place the plants in the 
soil in front of them. 



or fail to do so. They are divided into three classes — 
herbaceous, woody, and shrubs and trees, a. Herbaceous 
perennials have perennial roots but annual tops — aspara- 
gus, peony, saccaline, bindweed, b. Woody perennials 
have perennial roots but biennial stems — the bramble 
fruits (raspberry, blackberry, dewberry), c. Shrubs and 
trees are woody in both root and stem, and persist from 
year to year without a definite loss. 



PLANT I'KUPAGATION 




8. Plant propagation methods, of which there are many, 
naturally divide themselves into two general classes de- 
pendent upon whether seed bodies (spores or seeds) or 
buds are used. Propagation by spores is so nearly akin 
to that by seeds that the two are usually classed under 
the one head — Seedage. Because propagation by means 
of seeds is dependent upon the previous action of the 

reproductive organs 
(pistils and stamens) it 
is called sexual; that by 
means of buds, in which 
no such action occurs, is 
termed asexual. This 
terin is also extended to 
plant reproduction by 
true and adventitious 
buds. 
H(,. 4 cRACKhh soil, 9. Spores are asexual. 

Bad physical condition due to lack of USUally One-Cellcd, reprO- 
\ egetable matter. Such soil dries out deeply , ■ i j • r n 

because of the cracks. ductlVC bodlCS Ot tlOW- 

erless plants. A striking 
difference between them and seeds is that they contain no 
embryo. While reproduction of plants from spores is not 
dependent on sex, as in flowering plants, the process is, 
practically speaking, a sexual one. (Compare Seeds, 10.) 

To illustrate, the black or brown spots (called sori) beneath the 
fronds of many ferns, produce hundreds or thousands of spores. 
These germinate on moist surfaces and produce small plant bodies 
(prothalia) each of which develop two distinct growths, an arche- 
gonium and an antheridium, which correspond respectively to the 
pistils and the stainens of flowering plants and are, therefore, the 
essential organs of reproduction in flowerless plants. When, during 
the process of growth, an antheridium unites with an archegonium, 
a sperm cell from the former fertilizes the egg cell in the latter and 
a little plant is produced — a fern, a moss, a mushroom, or some other 
flowerless plant, according to the species. 

Spores are of interest to the horticulturist because they produce 
f^rns, mosses, mushrooms, fire-fanging fungi (137), and many 
plant diseases such as apple scab, wheat rust, black knot of cherry 
and plum, downy mildew of grape, etc. 



1NTK()|)IU"II()>: 7 

10. Seeds arc fertilized ovules, structures which when 
mature include rudimentary plants (embryos) protected 
while dormant by seed coats and containing nutriment 
either in or around the cotyledons to supply the needs 
of growth. Since the production of seeds is due to the 
fertilization of ovules by pollen, the process is called 
sexual; hence the term sexual reproduction is often 
extended to include seedage. In beet, chard, and some 




FIG. 5— WEEDING POTTED PLANTS IN COLD FRAME 

other plants, the "seeds" are really the dried fruits or 
capsules which contain several to many seeds (p. 49). 

11. Seeds vary greatly in size from that of the dust-like 
orchid and begonia to that of Seychelles cocoanuts, 
which sometimes Aveigh 40 pounds, and are 18 inches in 
girth. 

12. The micropyle is a minute opening through the 
seed coats. Through it the pollen tube enters the ovule 
and the radicle emerges during the process of germina- 
tion. Often it is almost invisible until the seeds begin to 



8 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



gerniinate. In Lima bean it is seen close to the liilum. 

13. The hilum of a seed is the scar left by the separa- 
tion of the seed from the placenta of the ovary. 

14. The embryo usually consists of three parts ; cotyle- 
dons or seed leaves ; plumule or rudimentary stem w^ith 
its attached leaves between the cotyledons ; and the cau- 
licle or first internode or length between joints of the 
stem below the cotyledons and above the true root. 

15. The number of cotyledons is used to divide plants 
into three classes : Monocotylcdonous, or plants with only 
one cotyledon (asparagus, lily and grasses such as corn 
and bamboo) ; dicotyledonous, plants with two cotyledons 
(radish, marigold, dandelion) ; and polycotylcdonous, 
plants with more than two cotyledons (pine, spruce.) 

16. Farm and garden crops are almost all grown from 
seeds. Irish potatoes and sugar 
cane produce more or less seed, 
but this is not used except to 
develop new varieties. Jeru- 
salem artichoke, sweet potato, 
tarragon and horseradish (17) 
no longer naturally produce 
seed, so must be propagated by 
asexual methods. Tree and 
small fruits do not come true 
to name or variety from seed ; 
the seedlings are almost always 
inferior in some way or ways 

to varieties propagated asexually. 

17. Horseradish from seed. — A Hungarian experimenter has pro- 
duced horseradish seed by ringing. Two types of plants were pro- 
duced. Had their origin not been known they woukl hardly have 
been classed as the same species. Hence the author concludes that 
horseradish is only a hybrid and that the contrasting forms result 
from breaking this hybrid into its original types. 

18. The essential organs of flowers are the pistils which 
contain the ovules or unfertilized and undeveloped 
"eggs," and the stamens which contain in their anthers 




HG. 6— SPOTTING BOARD 

Above, making holes; below, 
dibbling-in seedlings. 



INTUODUCTION 9 

the pollen necessary to fertilize the ovules. Usually 
petals and sepals (non-essential organs) are associated 
with the essential organs, either for protection or to 
attract insects, htimming birds and other creatures upon 
which fertilization of many plants depends. Some 
flowers, such as lizards-tail, are naked ; that is, they have 
neither petals nor sepals, at least during the fertilizing 
period. Others, such as snowball and hydrangea and the 
ray flowers of many composites, often have neither pistils 
nor stamens. They are, therefore, called sterile. 

19. The pistil consists of two essential parts, the stigma 
and the ovary. It may or may not have a style or stalk 
joining these two parts; or rather, when the style is very 
short it is said to be sessile. 

20. Ovules are small growths on the interior walls of 
the ovaries. They usually consist of two layers, which 
inclose the embyro sac. This sac consists of several 
cells, one of which is the Qgg cell. 

21. Fertilization of flowers is the rendering viable of 
ovules by the pollen. It is almost always between plants 
of the same species, and usually between flowers of dif- 
ferent plant individuals. When plants of different species 
or genera unite by means of the pollen of one fertilizing 
the ovules of another, the resulting plants are called 
liybrids. Comparatively few tree fruits will hybridize, 
but several of the bush fruits and many ornamental 
plants have done so. Almost always hybrids of trees 
and shrubs must be propagated asexually. 

Examples of hybridization are Kieffcr, Le Conte and Garl)er pears, 
Rogers' grapes, wild goose plum, Wilson blackberry, Shaffer rasp- 
berry and many varieties of roses, cannas, begonias, gladioli, 
fuchsias, etc. 

22. The fertilization process in flowers is essentially as 
follows: Ripe pollen is discharged from the anthers in 
the same or some other flower, generally of the same 
species. It reaches the "ripe" or receptive stigma of the 
pistil either through the agency of wind, insects or some 



lO 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



other way peculiar to the individual species of plant. 
The stigma being moist, sticky or hairy when receptive, 
holds the pollen grains until they germinate. In ger- 
mination they extend growths downward through the 
style to the ovary, where they reach the ovules, which 
they enter through small openings called micropylcs 
(one in each ovule). After entrance, the sperm cell con- 
tained in the pollen grain unites with the egg cell of the 
ovule, and the ovule, now said to be fertilized, develops 
into an embryo plant covered with the ovule wall, which 
develops into the seed coat of the ripened seed. 




FIG. 7— LATH HOUSE FOR SUMMER PROPAGATION 
This provides partial shade and helps retain moisture in the soil. 

23. The ripened ovary with its seed is called the peri- 
carp or seed case. It may be simple, as in pea and radish, 
or complex, as in plum and raspberry. Botanically speak- 
ing, the ripened ovary with, in some cases, other parts 
united to it, is called the fruit. Horticulturally speaking, 
;l fruit is an edible pericarp. In some instances the edible 
part is the seed case (peach, cantaloupe) ; in others, the 
seed itself (corn, almond) ; again, it is mainly the swelled 
flower calyx (apple, pear) ; and yet again the swelled 
receptacle with the seeds (strawberry, blackberry). 

24. Seeds contain plant food in the cotyledons or other 
parts to support the seedling plants during germination 
and until they are able to support themselves. Not until 



INTKODUCTION 



II 



the radicle has formed root hairs can plant food be taken 
from the soil (or other medium in which the seedlings 
are being grown) ; and not until the plumule has formed 
green leaves can such plant food be worked over to form 















FIG. 8— GERMINATION IN CLOTH 
The seeds are laid in rows on the cloth kept damp by sand in the tray below. 

plant tissue, lentil then the seedling lives on the food 
stored in the seed by the parent plant. This food in- 
cludes starches or sugars, cellulose, fat, proteids or liquids 
or combinations of two or more of these materials. 

Fully ripened dry seeds are highly resistant to outside 
influences; in some cases (squash, pine) continuing vital 



12 PLANT PROPAGATION 

or viable for many years (p. 49). It must be remarked, 
however, that the stories about the germination of seeds 
taken from ancient tombs, as from the pyramids of Eg-ypt, 
are untrue. Among the seeds so delivered to the gullible 
is Indian corn, which, being an American plant, was not 
known to the ancient Egyptians ! 

25. Seed dissemination is accomplished naturally in 
three general ways — wind, water and animals. 

Wind plays an important part in transporting very 
light seeds, especially such as are provided with append- 
ages which buoy them up. Willow, poplar, thistle, dan- 
delion, milkweed, sycamore and similar seeds are thus 
carried long distances. Wind also helps carry heavier 
seeds provided with wings that whirl or flutter in the air 



•' I'' 'I'lii _ '.MJ^' *' "■ 1 . . I- ' I I '". , > I L 

\,\"iv.'-;,-, .„,^ ' •J^<)#>j'y;2iGi^^?l^^ -,,/,•:;•• ,..^^ "■•■'■■ 

FIG. 9— BRUSH SCREEN TO SHADE PLANTS OUT OF DOORS 
Used mainly for slow-sprouting seeds and plants such as conifers. 

and thus check descent more or less. Maple, elm, white- 
wood, box elder, basswood, ash and other winged seeds 
may be carried several hundred or thousand feet, depend- 
ing upon the strength of the wind. 

Water transports seeds that float readily much greater 
distances than it does those that sink. Among the best 
examples are apples, walnuts and acorns. Water also 
transports seeds that are carried by wind and by animals. 
It is, therefore, the most general agent of the three. 

Animals carry seeds in one or the other of three ways : 
either, first, attached to their bodies (burs, beggar-lice, 
stick-tights, Spanish needles, etc.) ; or, second, in their 
intestines, where the juices of digestion fail to break down 
the protective coverings of the seeds (blackberry, cherry, 



INTRODUCTION I3 

pokeweed, plum, etc.) ; or, third, by burying them for 
later use as food and then failing to dig them up. Squir- 
rels are perhaps most active in this way: they bury im- 
mense numbers of nuts and acorns. 

Man in his various activities is the greatest of all seed 
distributors. Consciously and purposely he collects seed 
in all parts of the world and transports it to places where 



FIG. 10— PRICKING OUT SEEDLINGS IN FLAT 
Note the "spotting" board for spacing the plants evenly. 

it is to be planted ; unconsciously he carries weed seeds 
in bedding and packing, on ships and trains. He may 
accidentally or purposely mix such seeds with valuable 
ones and thus introduce them where the shipments are 
distributed. The progress of the race westward from 
India. Assyria, Palestine, Egypt, the Mediterranean and 
Northern Europe to America and Australasia may thus be 
traced by weeds and cultivated plants carried by man. 

26. Seed transportation is conducted upon an extensive 
scale bv scores of wholesale and retail seed merchants in 



14 PLANT rKOPAGATION 

all parts of the world. The rules herein presented (29), 
especially those concerning moisture and heat, are fol- 
lowed with great care. Seeds such as acorns are very 
difficult to transport long distances. Usually thick- 
coated and bony seeds require moist, confined air; thin- 
shelled ones, dry conditions. For shipping to or through 
the tropics seeds are usually sealed in tin cases or oiled 
packages. Most seeds, however, sent through ordinary 
cool climates, after being thoroughly air dried, need be 
placed only in cotton sacks, large paper packages or 
nianila envelopes. Apple, pear and other small seeds are 
often mixed with powdered charcoal. 

Often more satisfactory results may be secured by 
growing the seedlings of species very difficult to ship in 
the seed form and shipping these either actively growing 
in wardian cases or dormant as nursery stock. The 
former method is not much practiced ; the latter is the 
favorite method of nurserymen. 

27. The rest period of seeds is that interval between 
the apparent maturity of the seeds upon the parent plant 
and the time when the seeds will germinate under con- 
ditions normal to the species. Such seeds apparently 
cannot be made to sprout earlier. A 
majority of garden seeds will sprout 
within a month of the time they mature ; 
a few almost without any delay. It is no 
uncommon thing for seeds of cereals to 
sprout while still in the head, should 
the weather be wet for a considerable 
time at harvest. The mangrove normal- 
ly sprouts its seeds while still attached 
to the parent plant. The rest period is 
pot'°plun"ging r^3.\\y a time of chemical change or 
a, pot in soil, b, dibble, ripening of the foods stored in the seeds. 
It may be broken by drying, freezing, chemicals, or by 
freezing and thawing. 




INTRODUCTION 



15 



Howard and Whitten of Missouri planted about ^00 species of 
seeds representing 51 genera to determine whether seeds in general 
are capable of germinating immediately after ripening if placed in 
favorable conditions. Seeds of grass, lily, pink, mallow, legume and 
composite families seem to have no rest period, while rose, cashew 
and vine families have a pronounced one. in general seeds of woody 
plants have a more pronounced rest period and are more dif- 
ficult to force into growth than seeds of vegetable and other her- 




FIG. 12— TWO STYLES OF PLANT PROTECTORS OR "FORCERS" 

1, closed paper-sided protector with glass top. 2 and 3, forcers in field 
use. 4, open-sided protector with adjustable glass front which allows of ventila- 
tion. 




FIG. 13— CHARACTERISTIC FORMS OF SEEDLINGS 

Top, left to right: Spinach, salsify, bean, salsify. Second row: Beet, corn 
sunflower, lettuce. Third row: White oak, garden pea, lettuce, onion. Bottom row: 
Sunflower, cardoon, fennel, carrot. 

16 



IXI KdDL'C'TION 17 

baceous plants. Variation in lcn,utli and intensity df the rest iH'ridil 
is greater l)et\veen S])ocies than within species. Etherization tend;- 
to stiinuhite seeds into early growth and to increase the percentage 
of total germination. Soaked and stratified seeds are more strongly 
affected by ether than are dry seeds. A l;3-hour exposure to ether 
seems the most favorable dose to force seeds to germinate. 

28. Handling fleshy fruit seeds. — Seeds of many fruits 
must 1)c freed from their fleshy or pulpy coverings before 
they can be stored or planted. When there is no danger 
of injury to them the fruits may be crushed or grovtnd. 
For instance, apples are so treated, the pomace mixed 
with water and allowed to stand until the pulp has par- 
tially fernienled. 1'he process requires a week to two 
or three, dependinj^- mainly upon the temperature and the 
character of the i)ulp. The seeds become separated from 
the pulp and sink to the bottom. An occasional vigorous 
stirring aids the process of separation. The ptilp is fi- 
nally poured (dt, the seeds collected, re- washed and dried. 

Soft fruits, such as blueberries, raspberries, strawber- 
ries, and cranberries, are often treated in this way, though 
they are perhaps as often handled like tomatoes, cucum- 
bers, melons and other fruits, merely crushed under water 
and then washed, the pulj) being skimmed off and the 
seeds allowed to settle. 

Sometimes the separation requires chemical treatment 
to get rid of unnecessary membranes. For instance, the 
membranes of persimmon seeds may be easily removed 
after a soaking in weak caustic potash solution (a stick 
to a pailful of water). 

1-Vesh ashes, lime and lye arc of great help in freeing 
many seeds of their resinous coverings. 

29. Points to remember about seeds. — In Bulletin r)S 
of the Bureau of Plant Industry, J. W. F. Duvel writer 
in substance as follows, except where brackets are used : 

A. Seeds are living organisms and must be properly treated to get 
good results when sown. [They are dormant creatures. Or to use 
an analogy, they are comljined physical and chemical laboratories 
which need only the proper conditions of moisture, heat and o.X3'gen 
to get them in operation. | 



i8 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



P). The most important factors that determine vitaHty are ma- 
turity, harvest weather conditions and ways of harvesting and 
curing. 

C Immature seeds soon after rii)ening usually sprout well, but if 
stored lose vitality rapidly ; well-matured seeds harvested under 
favorable conditions should keep long. 

D. Seeds harvested in damp weather have less vitality than those 
harvested in dry weather. 

E. Seeds once injured never regain full vigor. 

F. While proper curing is of the utmost importance, great care 
is needed to prevent heating, since this reduces vitality. 




FIG. 14— SEED AND BULB DRYING SHED 
Temporary poles and racks are placed on the permanent poles 



G. The life of seed varies with the family, genera and species; but 
there is no relation between the longevity of plants and the viable 
period of the seed they produce. Some seeds lose their vitality in a 
few weeks or months [California poppy], others live for years 
[melons, cucumbers]. 

H. With special precautions the life of seeds may be lengthened 
within reasonable limits. 

I. Certain seeds retain their vitality better in some sections than 
in others ; i. e., climate plays an important part. 

J. Moisture is the chief factor in determining the longevity of 
seeds under commercial conditions. 

K. The bad effects of moisture are heightened where the tem- 
perature is high. Often vitality is destroyed in a few weeks or 



INTRODUCTION I9 

inoiitlis vvlicn seeds are stored in a moist, warm climate; hut where 
the storage is dry. normal temperature ranges are not so important. 

L. The majority of carefully dried seeds can stand long exposure 
to a temperature of !)8, hut 102 to 104 for a similar time will kill 
them. In a moist air 8() will soon cause injury. 

M. Seeds to he sent to a moist climate should he shipped in air- 
tight packages, but they must he dry hefore heing sealed. 

N. Seeds under ordinary storage conditions respire most freely 
when moisture is present, hut respiration is not necessary to their 
life, ])ecause they may he successfully kept even better for a time 
under conditions unfavorable to respiration. 



CHAPTER II 
GERMINATION 

30. Germination, botanically speaking, is the resump- 
tion of growth by the dormant embryo or young plant 
in the seed. Popularly it is the sprouting of seeds, the 
first step in vegetation. To enable the seed to ger- 
minate it must have a perfectly developed embryo, and 
be mature or nearly so. It must not be too old for its 
species (p. 49). It is complete when growth has rup- 
tured the seed coats and the embryo has emerged. 

31. How seedlings grow. — Seedlings push through the 
soil by the extension of their radicles or hypocotyls, 
aided in some cases by their cotyledons. When the 
descending parts have taken hold of the soil by means 
of their root hairs, or by lateral root growth, upward 
growth begins. Though in some cases (pea, oak, Fig. 
13) the cotyledons descend, or at least remain beneath 
the surface to help anchor the seedlings, they usually 
"come up" above the surface (bean, radish), and often 
turn green and perform the functions of true leaves 
(maple, tomato, nasturtium). In the former case the 
cotyledons contain large quantities of food which nourish 
the plantlets; in the latter the role of nurse is dropped 
as soon as they turn green. Often while the first true 
leaves are expanding, the roots contract and extend 
laterally, thus drawing the little plants deeper in the soil 
and anchoring them firmly. 

32. Growth in length is due to cell division and develop- 
ment at the growing point ; that of girth, by cell division 
and development of the cambium and contiguous cells. 

33. Hypocotyl or caulicle, the first internode or part 
of stem below the cotyledons and above the radicle or 
beginning of the true root. 

20 



(;i:kMixA'n()x 



21 



34. Radicle, that part of the embryo below the eot\le- 
dons, including- the caulicle and the nascent root; by 
some botanists restricted to the extreme point of the 
caulicle from which the root develops. 

35. Factors of germination. — (lermination depends 
uj^on four factors: \iabilit\, water, free oxygen and 




FIG. 15— SHADES FOR OUTDOOR PROPAGATING BEDS 

1. Lath shade. 2. Cloth on frame. The shades may be lifted in dull weather 
to accustom the plants to the sun. 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



])i-()])CT heat. The seed of each species, and even some 
varieties of a single species of plant, seem to demand 
different degrees or quantities of one or more of these 
factors to produce best results. The most favorable 
combination of these factors for each kind of seed is, 
therefore, called the optimum for that species. Age and 
stage of maturity of the seeds exercise more or less 
influence upon germination. Presupposing viability, 
which means ability to live, the steps or stages of ger- 
mination are : 1. Absorption of 
moisture by the seed. 2. Conver- 
sion of stored food under favor- 
able temperature into sugars by 
enzymes or natural ferments. 3. 
Stimulation of the embryo cells 
into growth. 4. Bursting the 
seed coat by the swelled embryo, 
etc. 

36. Water is necessary in ger- 
mination because plant food must 
be in solution to be of service to 
the embryo. It is, perhaps, more 
important than oxygen and heat 
because too much or too little may prevent germination. 
Therefore, in practice, it requires careful regulation. 
Generally it reaches the seed through the soil, though 
many seeds and spores sprout on any surface moist 
enough, or any material which will supply their needs. 
In nature there are many variations. Cocoanuts will sprout 
among rocks where thrown up by the sea, their roots sustained by 
the "milk" while searching perhaps several yards for crevices in 
which to secure a hold and food. Countless kinds of seeds blown by 
wind or carried by water sprout among mountain rocks where both 
soil and water are in very small supply. Spanish moss seeds ger- 
minate on the limbs of trees. Mistletoe does this also, but the 
sprouts take parasitic root in the tissues of the tree to which they 
attach themselves. 

Still water retards germination. In the case of buckwheat grown 
experimentally, most seeds sprouted in 24 hours in running water, 
but those in still water took two days or more. 




FIG. 16— CUTTING FRAME 
FOR WINDOW 
A handy device for school- 
rooms. 



GERMINATION 



23 



37. Temperature variations inlluencc seeds in gerniiiia- 
i'lon less than do those of moisture. Koth, however, 
should be a\oided. Seeds will stand much heat and cold 
if dry, but if wet, frost may injure them and heat may 
"cook" them. In seed storage, everything promotive of 
decay must be avoided. Especially must the seed be kept 




FIG. 17— GLASS PROTECTORS FOR OUTDOOR PLANTING 

At left, F, panes of glass fitted together by wooden top. At right, continuous 
plant forcer: A, wire for ridge; a, h, outside; c, inside; B. wire to hold side panes 
at d and e; C, making section; D, completed section; E, continuous row. 

as dry as possible. The room may be even hot, provided 
it is not damp. This rule applies to small as well as 
large quantities of seeds. Often corn, wheat and other 
cereals improperly dried before shipment heat in transit 
and are ruined both for seedage and food. Sometimes 
the heat is great enough to cause great losses in ware- 
houses and ships, in some cases even starting fires by 
spontaneous c()ml)Ustion. 

38. Time of sowing out of doors, as well as depth, 
influences temperature. Seeds planted deeply in spring 
may rot because they are too cold ; and those planted 
shallow in summer may continue dry and thus fail to 
sprout. Hence early spring sowing of any kind of seed 
should be shallower than that of the same kind in late 
spring or summer. No general rule can be given, be- 



24 



AN'I' I'KoPACA'riON 



cause each species has its own preferences; but large 
seeds may be sown two to four times their diameters 
and small ones only slightly covered — just enough to 
hide them from the light. Fresh and strong seeds may 
be sown deeper than old or weak ones, because the seed- 
lings should reach the surface with less dilhcultv. 




FIG. 18— PROPAGATiiNo BENCH SHADED WITH NEWSPAPERS 

Notice the burlap curtains beneath the bench. These gi\e several degrees of 
bottom heat when lowered. 



39. Light hinders some seeds from sprouting (poppy, 
adonis, larkspur), but has no apparent efifect upon others. 
Its influence upon germination is not fully understood. 
Seeds of mistletoe, Spanish moss and many orchids ger- 
minate as well in light as in dark places, perhaps even 
better. 

For these reasons it is considered advisable to shade 
fine seeds and spores while germinating. Nothing is to 
be gained by the reverse process. When covered with 
soil they are usually shaded enough, but when sown 
upon or very near the surface they sprout better 
when shaded at least partially. Parsley, thyme, mar- 
joram and other slow-sprouting and small seeds do best 



OKUMIXAI IU.\ 



-'5 



in the open under shade. This is, however, more be- 
cause of controlled moisture than of light. Paper and 
muslin are popularly used for shading. (Figs. 15, 18.) 
When the plantlets have two or more true leaves the 
shade may be removed. 

40. Influence of sunlight on seed germination. — Experiments in 
Germany show that in nearly every instance seeds subjected to direct 
rays of the sun were retarded in s^ermination, although the effect on 
the total germinative ability was not influenced in any appreciable 
degree, the total number of germinations in each lot being practically 
the same. One lot was germinated wholly in the dark, another re- 
ceived sunlight 44 days, while the control lot was germinated out of 
the direct rays of the sun. 

41. Seedlings grown without light.— A. Bergerstein, a German in- 
vestigator, grew seedlings of more than 100 species of gymnosperms 
to determine the effects of light and darkness on them. His general 
conclusions are that except Ciiiikyo and Epiicdra the seedlings be- 
come green even in the dark. The rapidity of coloration varies with 
the temperature. Cycas and Zainia. even under favorable tempera- 
tures, failed to develop chlorophyll in the total absence of light. 
Among many conifers, chlorophyll is formed in the dark, both in the 
cotyledons and the hypocotyl (except in Larix). Araucaria pro- 
duced it in branches developed while in the dark several weeks. In 
Abies and Ccdnts the embryo, even in dormant seeds, contains 
chlorophyll. In other species the seedlings begin to turn green be- 
fore the seed coat is broken or shortly after the emergence of the 
radicle. Conifer seedlings in the dark have shorter roots and 
cotyledons, but larger and thicker hypocotyls than similar plants 
grown in the light. 

42. Oxygen is usually in ample supply for germination. 
It is always present in soils neither tightly inclosed nor 
water soaked. Water plants (lotus, water lily) have 
special ability to germinate under water. 

43. Depth to plant. — Deep planting is unfavorable td 
germination, first, because the supply of oxygen is re- 
stricted and, second, because the seedlings may be unable 
to reach the surface, especially if the soil is hard. Under 
glass the same species of seeds may be planted at twice 
the (lci)th employed in the open. After planting, the soil 
should be firmed' lightly ( Fig. 20) to avoid washing when 
^vatering. If the soil is hard and likely to bake, apply a 
light mulch of old compost in the rows. 



26 



]?LANT PROPAGATION 




FIG. 19— DEEP 
PLANTING EFFECTS 

Seeds planted all at one 
time. 



44. Very small seeds (begonia, 
thyme) are merely dusted on the 
soil in a seed "pan" which is sunk 
in moist sand or moss, water never 
being applied directly. (Fig. 95.) 
Sometimes the reverse method is 
practiced — the water being contain- 
ed in an interior pot In each case the 
water seeps through the porous pot 
and keeps the soil moist. 

Seeds the size of celery are often 
watered after sowing liy standing 
the pans in shallow water until the 
surface soil becomes moist. By 
these methods the watering is 
quickly done Avithout danger of 
washing the seeds out of the soil. 
Too much water is as bad as too lit- 
tle, because the soil becomes water-logged and the seeds 
decay. Dampness throughout the whole soil is all that is 
needed in a seed bed, except for aquatic plants (water 
lily, rice). A wet surface over a dry soil is very bad be- 
cause the roots cannot grow properly. Hence seeds and 
seedlings should be watered from below whenever pos- 
sible. 

For large numbers of seeds and for 
big seed beds, watering with a hose 
(or sprinkler) is necessary. Never 
should a strong stream or an open 
hose be used for such work, because 
these may either wash out or bury 
the seeds, pack the soil or do all three. 
Florists and gardeners who grow 
many plants under glass use great 
care in watering seeds. They aim to 
keep the soil moist, not wet, and never logged, because 




and B, row markers; 
C, firming hoard 



GEKiMl NATION 



-7 



excess moisture tends to weakening and danipinj^-olf 
(78) of seedlings. 

45. Aids to germination. — Most seeds properly handled 
germinate freely ; but seeds of certain families, the Um- 
belliferie especially, are slow (parsley, carrot, celery, 
parsnip, etc.). These and hard, bony seeds (48) allowed 
to dry out too much may fail entirely unless treated prior 
to sowing. Their treatment seeks to soften or break the 
seed coats so the embryos may emerge. 

46. Enzymes used experimentally in some cases increased the per- 
centage of germination when the seeds were soaked several hours in 
a solution of some active enzyme or enzymes; the vigor of the young 
plantlets was often enhanced at the same time ; within limits these 
good effects increase witli the strength of the solution ; diastase 
seems to be the most useful ; tomato seeds seem to respond es- 
pecially well to diastase. 

47. Chemicals, usually di- 
lute, or weak acids or alkalies, 
are sometimes used for seeds 
with hard, bony coats affected 
neither by soaking nor freez- 
ing. They soften the shells so 
water may enter. Vinegar 
aids the seeds of bramble 
fruits (blackberry, raspberry, 
etc.). Sulphuric acid (com- 
mercial strength) is some- 
times used for cotton, alfalfa 
and clover seeds, the soaking 
lasting two or three to 20 min- 
utes (Fig. 21). Thorcuigh 
washing with water after the 
soaking is essential, 
care must be 
diluting the acid. The acid may be poured slowly 
into the full volume cif water, but the reverse order 
must not be followed because the acid will "fly." The 
acid must not touch the skin or fabrics, because it burns. 




G. 2t— KENTUCKY COFFEE 
TREE SEEDLING 

Oreat SuIphurlc aciJ made this develop- 
, . ment in 40 days. 

exercised m 



28 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



The acid method is found in nature ; for seeds of many fruits are 
softened by the acids of the fruits themselves or by those in the 
stomachs and intestines of birds and animals that eat the fruits 
(barberry, cedar, cherry, mulberry, thorn, etc.). 

48. Mechanical helps are used for seeds whose coats 
are too hard to be affected by any of the methods so far 
described. Filing or boring holes in Abyssinian banana. 




FIG. 22— STUDENTS AT PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE 

1. Setting cabbage plants. 2. Student vegetable gardens. Dairy barn in rear. 
Each student does his quota of work in the field. From 125 to 150 plan and 
tend their gardens each spring semester. 



GERMINATION 



29 



moonflower, canna and wild cucumber is often done. The 
object is to let water in to the cotyledons. Lotus seeds 
not kept in water from time of ripening have also to be 
treated thus ; but if kept immersed as in nature, they will 
sprout readily under favorable conditions. 

49. Stratification is a modification of nature's method 
(tf handling hard-shelled seeds. In cold climates the 
seeds are broken open by frost ; in warm ones by the 
moisture usually abundant during the so-called winter 




FIG. 23— DIBBLES, THEIR USE AND ABUSE 



a, flat-bladed, wide style; b, homemade "punch" dibbles; c, pot-plunging 
dibble; d, root-graft planting dibble; e, trowel style; f, dibble made 
from spade handle. A, right way to use dibble, when pressing soil from bottom 
of hole to top. B, wrong way — pressing soil from top and leaving air space 
around roots. 



or rainy season. Stratification consists in fully exposing 
the seeds to the action of the weather. The common 
practice is to place the seeds in shallow boxes in thin 
layers alternated with layers of sand or sifted soil. These 
boxes, covered with galvanized hardware cloth (one-half 
inch mesh) to keep out squirrels, mice and other crea- 
tures, are then placed flat on the ground out of doors so 
they will be moistened by rain and snow and will freeze 
and thaw as frequently as possible. The same method 




30 PLANT PROPAGATION 

is practiced in warm climates where moisture in effect 
takes the place of frost. 

This process of stratification depends for its utility 
upon the osmotic passage of water into the seeds which 
are thereby softened so the embryo can easily emerge. 
In cold climates frost splits hard-shelled seeds, which in 
nature are kept moist by the pulp 
around them (peach, walnut) or by 
fallen leaves which cover them (hickory, 
chestnut). Many hard-shelled seeds 
FIG 24— have a seam through which water en- 

PAPER *^''^- Perhaps the majority of such 

PLANT PROTECTOR sccds, if placcd iu the soil and kept 
there through the winter, would be suf- 
ficiently soft by spring, even without frost action, to ger- 
minate readily. 

50. Stratification to maintain moisture in seeds (apple, 
cherry) is often practiced even in cold climates. If such 
seeds were allowed to dry out they would be useless. 
Hence, as soon as gathered they are stratified, often 12 
to 18 inches deep, so they will not sprout but will keep 
moist until the autumn, when they are dug up and strat- 
ified in the usual way. (Compare 54.) 

51. Nurserymen's stratification method. — Nurserymen 
often stratify peach and plum seeds in shallow, bowl-like 
pits or in trenches which hold many bushels.These are 
covered with sand and protected as already described till 
spring. The seeds are then sown after the sprout has 
made a little growth. This method is better than sowing 
the seeds in the nursery rows during the fall, because the 
seeds can be better protected from animals and also be- 
cause soil prepared in spring is less likely to bake than 
that prepared in the fall. 

52. When to plant stratified seeds. — Stratified seeds 
should always be planted early in spring before germina- 
tion starts, because many species sprout while the ground 
is still cold (pear, beech, oak, apple). If sprouting starts 



GEKMINATIUN 



31 



before sowing", the percentage of loss will be high. Hence 
the seed bed should be prepared the previous fall so as 
to lose no time in spring. Peach and plum seeds do not 
suffer as much as do apple and pear seeds. Should il 
ever be necessary to sow the seeds, especially of small 
kinds, such as apple, strawberry, raspberry, while the soil 
is wet and cold, it is a good plan to open furrows and 
cover the seeds with well-decayed, fibrous compost, saw- 
dust or similar material, so as to prevent baking. A 
good mixture for this purpose is rotted sod, sharp sand 
and cow manure which has been rotted a year or more 
and turned over twice or oftener to secure uniformity. 

53. Necessity of freezing. — Whether freezing is neces- 
sary to cold climate seed germination is not decided. It 
does not, however, injure the seed germs but often helps 
in removing natural obstructions such as hard shells. 
Hence, it is preferred to cracking by hand, necessarily a 
slow and risky process. 




1 10. 25— VIEW IN FLORIDA NURSERY 
Shifting; palms, a very important process in plant yrowing. 



3-' 



PLANT rUOPAGATION 



54. Soaking of seed is often employed as a substitute 
for stratification, the dry seed (locust, apple) being cov- 
ered with water from half a day to two or three days 
before sowing. This is of special use in cases where the 
seeds have become unusually dry. Many nurseries now 
store their peach pits dry from harvest time through 
the winter until within two weeks of planting time, when 
the seeds are placed in l)arrels of water. Since imported 




H(j. ^(S -SHHb STUDY CARDS 

In each circle punched in cardboard seeds are placed; at left, corn o( 
various kinds; at right, clovers. The cards are then covered with glass and fas- 
tened together with adhesive tape or passepartout. 



apple seeds do not reach the United States before mid- 
winter, they are generally soaked two or three days, and 
then placed in stout cotton bags between cakes of ice 
and kept thus until planting time arrives. Due to the 
impracticability and uncertainty of the latter process, 
many nurserymen in this country prefer to buy dormant 
ap])le, cherry and other seedling trees from abroad 
(159). These are planted in nursery rows and later 
budded to the desired \aricties. 



(iI:km I .\ a I k i\ 



33 



55. Soaking of farm and garden seeds (peas, beans, 
cclcf}', corn) is common, hut i^ood results are less com- 
mon than is ]U)]nilarly su])])ose(l, for the soil should be 
decidedly moist and the soaking" discontinued as soon as 
the seeds ha\'e swelled. When kept in water longer, and 
when placed in soil too wet, decay is almost sure to occur; 
and if placed in soil that is too dry they may dry out and 
fail to grow in conse<iuence. \\ ith strong seeds sown 
out of doors in cold or unfavorable soil half a day to a 
day ma}' shorten the time the seeds would be under such 
conditions and thus l)e a help. 

56. Soaking beet seed experimentally shortened the time of ger- 
mination ; sii;ikoil seed gernnnated in four, five and six days after 
sowing, while dry seed required two weeks. Soaking the seed was 
done for l:i to 14 days at a temperature of 4:! to 48 in ;]." to 40 ])ounds 
water to 40 pounds seed. All seeds must be equally dampened but 
not wet and must be frequently stirred. 

57. Scalding is often done to very dry and hard-shelled 
seeds ^\hich are little, if at all, affected by cold water or 
by freezing. I-'or instance, the seeds of the Kentucky 
coffee tree are covered with boiling water, which cools 
rai)idly enough to pre\ent injur}-. The seeds of the 
nearly related honey locust are usually soaked in very 
warm water for two or three days before planting. Tn 
nature only a small proportion of these seeds sprout. 
The reason that e^•en these sprout is probably that the 
seed coats are softened by the fermentation of the pulp 
around them in the seed pod. The acid treatment, prob- 
ably, will give cjuicker and l)etter results (Fig. 21). 

Scalding does not mean boiling; merely pouring boil- 
ing water over the seeds and letting it cool gradually. 
.Such seeds, even in nature, mostly fail to germinate 
imless some such action as fermentation occurs. 

58. Hot water used by W'ernicke, a German investigator, in ger- 
mination experiments with .Icacia inolissiiiia and Lalhyrus gave <iO 
])er cent when soaked six hours at 122 degrees, 72 per cent when 
soaked three hours at 167 degrees and 92 per cent when heated from 
204 to 212 degrees for an hour. Untreated seed handled in flower 
pots of sand the same as the treated seed gave 50 per cent. 



34 



I'LANT PROPAGATION 



59. Vitality of seeds. — Most seeds contain more or less 
specimens that will not germinate at all. They are not 
viable ; in other words, they are dead even though freshly 
gathered and properly handled. Among viable seeds 
vitality varies greatly, but unless the germs be vigorous 
they will not sprout well nor produce vigorous plants. 
Hence the importance of buying the best. Since the 
price paid for good seed is very little compared with the 
value of the crop, the best farmers never haggle over the 
"high prices" of seeds sold by reputable seedsmen (77). 




FIG. 27— NELUMBIUM (LOTUS) PROPAGATION 

1. Seedlings in pots kept very wet. 2. Outdoor bed in pond. Seeds of 
most water plants must be kept moist from the time they ripen until they 
have sprouted. 



GERMINATION 35 

For instance, tlie Lonj> Island caulillower growers never pay less 
than 75 cents an ounce for seed, all of which is purchased in large 
lots on contract by their co-operative association. The lowest retail 
price quoted by a well-known seed house is 00 cents an ounce for an 
old standard variety; the highest, $7.00, but this is for a new variety. 

Among farm crops that suffer because of low vitality 
seeds are clover, blue grass, corn and wheat ; among 
garden crops, cabbage, cauliflower, onion, turnip, parsnip, 
lima bean, celery. Hence their high price. 

60. Seed in the tropics.— Many kinds of seed deteriorate rapidly 
in tropical climates; instances of 90 per cent germination immedi- 
ately on gathering with only 50 per cent a month later and zero at 
three months. Lettuce is said to lose vitality in a few weeks. 

61. The principal influences that affect vitality of 
seed are kind of seed, climate, maturity, age and method 
of storage. 

62. Age of trees seems to influence seed vitality; fir trees about 
150 years produced highest vitality seed by French experimental 
tests. 

Powdered charcoal is recommended as packing for such seeds as 
lose their vitality when shipped long distances. 

63. Acorn and nut vitality. — Many nuts and acorns quickly lose 
their vitality when dried ; therefore, they should be either planted 
soon after maturing or stratified in moist but not wet sand, soil or 
moss and kept in a cool place. Dr. T. H. Hoskins reports perfect 
germination of butternuts stored in a loft four or five years ! 

The longevity of seeds is well illustrated by the following in- 
stance. At Columbia, Mo., white clover seed which had been buried 
about six feet deep under a race track for 35 years, was found, upon 
being uncovered, to germinate freely. 



CHAPTER III 

GERMINATION AND LONGEVITY OF SEEDS 

64. Size of seed generally produces proportionate seed- 
lings, not only as to species but as to specimen. A mere 
glance at a lima bean would suggest that the seedling 
would be many times larger than a begonia seedling. 
The same generally holds true of the larger, heavier 
specimens as compared with the smaller, lighter ones of 
the same species. 

Galloway found that large radish seed germinates more quickly 
and certainly, and produces marketable plants sooner and more uni- 
formly than small seed, while small seed gives proportionately larger 
plants than does large seed, though not to an extent believed to be 
advantageous in practice. Another investigator found that pea 
plants from large seed bloomed four days earlier than those from 
small, and produced marketable peas four days earlier and the main 
crop five to six days earlier. Beans acted similarly. 

65. Large seed in plant production — M. B. Cummings of Vermont 
reports a series of experiments with seeds of sweet peas, sweet 
pumpkins, Hubbard squash, lettuce, beans, parsley, radishes, spinach, 
garden peas and other plants to determine the relative value of large 
and small seeds on plant production. The experiments, as a whole, 
show a distinct advantage in using large and heavy seed. Sweet 
peas gave earlier bloom, a larger number of blossoms, and a larger 
number of blossoms of good quality. The plants were also heavier 
and more prolific and thrifty. Small squash and pumpkin seed gave 
a larger number and greater total weight of fruit, but were markedly 
inferior as to number and weight of ripe fruit. Large lettuce seed 
produced larger seedlings, an increased weight of edibly matured 
plants with better heading capaliility. earliness and uniformity. Of 
the crops tested, garden peas alone showed little or no difference 
when the seed was harvested as green peas. There was a slight 
gain for plants from large seed allowed to mature. Large bean 
seed gave an earlier product, but was slower in germinating. 

66. Delayed germination. — When conditions are nor- 
mal, many seeds will sprout in less than three days (mus- 
tard family) ; others seem to require three or more weeks 
(parsley family) ; still others do not germinate for a 



GI'.KM I XA 1 l().\ WD 1,1 ).\(,l- A I I N ( M' SI". 



37 



}t'ar or more (holly, tliorn, niounlain ash), "rhcsc dif- 
fercncfs may be due to the form of the stored food, thi- 
character of the seed coats, the nature of the plant, the 
dryness of the seeds or of the soil, etc. h"or instance, 
ginseng seeds, if sown as soon as ripe, should sprout the 
following spring; if dry they may take 18 months or 







FIG. 28— VEGETABLE PLANT BEDS 

1. Celery for transplanting. 2. Seedling lettuce plants. The plants are 
kept free from weeds and are thinned and transplanted as mav be needed. 



38 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



more. Clover and alfalfa "hard seeds" are slow unless 
treated with snl])huric aeid as already indicated (47). 

67. Delayed germination, according to W. Crocker, an English 
investigator, is due to the structure of the seed coats rather than to 
that of the embryos, as popularly believed. Those coats which ex- 
clude water are slower than those which exclude oxygen. In nature, 
growth of delayed seeds results from decay of the seed coats by 
longer or shorter exposure to germinative conditions. 

In garden practice, advantage is often taken of difference in time 
of sprouting by sowing quick-germinating and slow-sprouting seeds 
in the same rows, the former to act as markers of the positions of 
the rows so cultivation may start at the earliest possible moment. 
The markers must always be sown very thinly. Radish is a favorite 
for this purpose, because it sprouts and matures early. 




FIG. 29— CALIFORNIA PRIVET IN OHIO NURSERY 
This ornamental is one of the leading hedge plants today. 

68. Re-germination of seeds. — Popular opinion is wrong 
in the belief that seeds once dried after germination are 
useless for sowing or are necessarily killed. Certainly 
they are not quite as good, but they may sprout again 
fully as well as the first time and produce just as good 
plants. Nowoczek made re-germination tests under tem- 
peratures varying between 60 and 68 degrees with results 



(;i:km iNAiioN AM) i.().\(;i:\i TV of ski-:ds 



39 



that show that corn, ra])e, flax, peas, l)uckwheat, onion, 
radish and some other seeds will re-germinate several 
times. Therefore, should drouth follow sprouting, it will 
not necessarily indicate that the sprouted hut dried seed.s 
of these crops will fail to germinate again under favor- 
able conditions. 

Re-germination Tests 





Number of Times an 


J Percentage of Germination 






1st time 


2d 


3 a 


4th 


5th 


6th 


7th 


Wheat 

Barley 

Oats 


70% 

85 

90 

98 

95 

88 

85 

87 


70% 

78 

83 

96 

55 

78 

41 

38 


57,, 

77 
66 
27 
30 
10 
3 


31% 

40 

62 

14 

17 

9 

3 


25% 
33 
40 
3 

1 


10% 
17 

27 


1% 

4 

8 




_ 


Rape 

Flax 


- 


Red CIo\ er 

Peas 


- 








FlC. 3(i--WRlNKLES IN GROWING PLANTS IN FLATS 

I. Flat with paper pot fillers and galvanized steel bottom (shown above). The 
plants are ready for setting without loss of roots. 2. Plants taken from Hat. 



CHAPTER IV 



SEED TESTING 

69, Specialists divide seeds into two classes — those 
whose botanical purity can be determined from the speci- 
mens themselves and those which can be judged only bv 

the plants they produce. 
Most farm seeds belong to 
the first class ; most garden 
seeds to the second. Hence, 
the former are the more 
easily tested and their val- 
ue for sowing more accu- 
ratel}- judged beforehand. 
With the latter the point of 
most importance is true- 
ness to name and strain. 
Of course they must ger- 
minate, but gardeners would 
rather have low vitality 
seed of good stock than 
high vitality seed of poor 
stock ; for though they 
might get only 25 per cent 
of plants from a sowing, 
these would be of the type 
they desire ; but even 90 
per cent in the other case 
might mean no sale for the 
product. Most good seedsmen, therefore, test their stock. 

The importance of this was recently told the writer by a prom- 
inent seedsman whose firm took a contract to furnish a canning fac- 
tory with a large quantity of best seed. The seed firm was obliged 
to t)uy the seed to fill the order. No test was, therefore, possible 
prior to filling the contract. The seed proved to be so inferior that 
the seed firm promptly met the loss of $1,200 when the canning 
company made complaint. 

40 




FIG. 31— TWO STYLES OF TROWELS 



Left, properly cared for; 
properly 



right, im- 



sI':i-:l) 'i'ics'I'inc, 



41 



70. The value of "trial grounds" to seedsmen and to the 
public cannot be oxcrcstiniatcd. The firm's stocks and 
those of competitors are grown side by side, and as the 
season advances, critical observations are made, with the 
result that inferior stock is discovered and disposed of in 
ways that will do no harm. 

71. The importance of seed analysis is threefold: a, 
seeds are the most varial)le materials farmers have to 
buy; b, weight for weight they are the most costly; c, 
the success or failure of the immediate crops and often of 
several generations of crops depends largely or perhaps 
even wholly upon the character of the seed. Hence seed 
testing is almost essential to the modern farmer who 
must leave no ])oint to chance. 

Borlase furnishes an example in the following table 
and comment : 

A'auk (IF Seed Analysis Illustrated 



£ 


■^ - ./I 




to 


•0 » 

(O-D 


c-o 5 
~ i! 5 


-0 ^ 

- u s 
III 


1 
■> 

3 


*25 
*20 
*18 


97.1 
7.S.6 
60.3 


1.7 
13.4 

28. 1 


J. 2 

8.0 

11.6 


213,620 

172,920 
132,660 


8,906 
8,64(1 
7,37o 



*Price approximate, hence "nuitfher good seed for a cent" also approximate. 





riG. 32— EFFECTIVE MEANS OF HASTENING GER.WINATION 
Seedlings under inverted Mower pot. 2. Seedlin;;s under pane of jjlass 



42 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



If only 10,000,000 seeds are sown to the acre, Sample 1 would 
provide over :.'0 weed seeds to the square yard, while Sample No. 3 
would distribute 240. But notice also the number of good seeds ob- 
tained for a cent and figure out how much is being paid for inferior 
and weed seeds in each case; then judge the help that pure seed 
will be in preventing weed growth on the farm. 

The Canadian Department of Agriculture found that "red 
clover" seed sold in Ontario contained 6,000 to 15,000 weed seeds 
to the pound and in alsike as high as 23,550 to 49,830. 

An American sample of alfalfa gave 6.8 per cent or about 

32,5()0 seeds in a pound of 
weed seeds, including 5.490 of 
dodder (see C, 72), one of 
the worst of weeds, because, 
being parasitic, it kills all the 
alfalfa it reaches. 

In certain parts of the 
United States, it is stated, 
clover seed tailings are some- 
times used on the farm, the 
clean seed being sold. Such 
tailings have been found to 
contain over 273,000 weed 
seeds to the pound. Such 
seed will soon make any 
farm a weed paradise. 

72. Losses due to low- 
grade seeds are evident 
from the examples cited. 
These may be grouped 
under the following 
heads: A. Direct loss 
on the purchase. B. 
Loss of crop due to in- 
sufficient good seed 
sown to the acre, with 
possible total loss in 
worst cases. C. Loss 
due to direct destruction 
of crop because of intro- 
duced parasites such as 
dodder and broom rape. 
FIG. 33-RHizoMEs j^ Ncccssary cost of ex- 

1. Iris showing old rhizome at left and . rlpanincr tViP af-f-rl 

new at right. 2. Rhubarb rhizome. ^^ <^ CJCdnnig^ inc bCCU 




SliKD TliSTINC. 



43 



crop, perhaps even for several 
years, due to the introduction 
of weeds. E. Damage caused 
l)y introduction of new weeds, 
which may spread over the 
farm or the district. F. l.oss 
(hie to insect and fungous pests 
introduced with the seed. 

A. Direct loss following the pur- 
chase of low-grade seeds may be 
due to one or both of two factors : 
(1) reduced quantity of seed true 
to name, and (2) poor germinating 
capacity of the seeds. Usually low 
quality seeds are poor in both ways. 

B. When truly high-class samples 
of seed are bought, less seed is need- 
ed for a given area than when low- 
grade samples are used. When a 
low-grade sample is sown unwitting- 
ly, the result may be a poor stand, 
which may be overcome by strong 
growing weeds, many of which may 
have been introduced with the seed. 
Sometimes the whole field may have 
to be plowed and re-sown, thus 
causing loss of cultivation, one lot 
of seed and much time, the last, per- 
haps, most serious, except the equiv- 
alent loss of money. 

C. The loss due to parasites may 
be calculated from the statement l)y 
M. Marre that a single dodder stem 
may spread so rapidly in three 
months as to kill clover or alfalfa 
on an area of about 30 square yards! 
By experiment, dodder seed has 
licen found to germinate when only 
lialf ripe! The seeds of the dodder 
and broom rape may lie dormant in 
the soil for several years. 

D. Introduced weeds may make 
necessary extra cultivation as well 
as extra cleaning of the sef^d croj). 

E. See comment above (F). 

F. See comment above (C). 
On every count, therefore, low- 
grade seeds are undesirable at any soil. 3. Fimjing in pot 




FIG. 34 — 
POTTING ROOTED GERANIUM 
1. Ready to fill. 2. Filling in 



44 



I'LA.XT rKUl'AGATIUN 




FIG. 35— SMALL SCALE SEED TESTING 



price. Low price is almost surely an index of low quality. 

73. Questions to consider in testing seed i. Is the seed to be 

purchased truly named? If not, it should be refused. Seed pur- 
porting to be Tri folium re- 
pcns (white clover) but really 
T. parvifloruiii (a worthless 
clover species) should be re- 
fused and the seller perhaps 
sued for fraud. Species can 
usually be identified, but va- 
rieties must generally be grown before they can. 

2. Is the seed fresh or old? Old seeds may be treated to make 
them look fresh, but that won't put life in them. When mixed with 
new seed they reduce the value 
because they are probably dead. 
This trick of the trade is far 
less practiced than formerly. It 
constitutes a fraud and is pun- 
ishable by law. Mere number of 
years does not necessarily make 
seed "old." Some seeds (see 
table p. 49) retain vitality ten or 
more years. They properly de- 
serve still to be called "fresh" 
if they germinate well. Repu- 
table seedsmen, after testing 
their "returned" seeds offer the 
good samples for sale again. 
This is perfectly legitimate. 

3. Has a cheaper seed been 

mixed V.'ith the desired kind? a, galvanized iron earth tray; a, 

Yellow trefoil seed superficially plants in pots; B, water tank filled by 

resembles, and is sometimes used funnel, F; C, chamber heated by lamp, 

J ,, . J 1 „i„:i ^ D; b, b, air intakes; E, removable top. 

to adulterate, red and alsike > > > > > ^ 

Gia33 Giasa clovers and alfalfa. Cock's-foot 

grass seed may be adulterated 
with meadow fescue or perennial 
rye grass and charlock seed, per- 
haps baked to kill it so its seed- 
lings will not betray the fraud, 
may be mixed with cal)l)age, rape 
ancl similar seeds. 

4. How pure is the sample? 
The percentage of seeds true to 
name is of great importance. The 
impurities should be identified— 
■eods and their species, seeds of 
other cultivated plants, cliaff, bits 




-ELABORATE PROPAGATING 
OVEN 



^^ 



■^3 



*4£.tj<..H:. AJt*jfcA^iiAA. 



Sarid 



r 




"t 



FIG. 37- 



-SIMPLE PROPAGATING 
OVEN 

With dimensions at 2 feet high the of Stem, leaf and pods, dirt, etc. 
.lilass wnuid be 10x12 inches. Verv liad wccd sccds sluuild be 



SEED TESTING 45 

named. "Rubhish" impurities are of small consequence compared 
U) weed seeds, especially if bad; for instance, a sample of clover 
'.)'.) per cent pure and with 9!) per cent germination, would be unsatis- 
factory if it contained dodder. 

5. What does the seed weigh? Generally heavy seeds within the 
limits of the species are best. 

6. Are the seeds dry? Well-dried seeds keep best and give best 
results. 

7. Where did the seeds originate? Seeds from some countries or 
e\ en localities may be better or poorer than from others. 

8. What percentage will germinate? And at what rate or 
"strength" ? 

1). \Vhat percentage are "hard" seeds? Perhaps this will not be 
considered as serious a question as formerly when the sulphuric 
acid method (47) comes into more general use. 




FIG. 38— SAND BOX SEED GERMINATOR 
The wires divide the surface into squares in which the seeds are placed. 

74. Simple conveniences in seed testing include a 
pocket lens to examine small seeds ; sheets of stout white 
paper or cardboard on which to spread seeds for examina- 
tion ; a spatula-like piece of hardwood, bone or celluloid 
to separate the seeds ; tweezers to pick out small seeds ; 
a small scales for weighing- phials of truly named culti- 
vated plant and weed seeds with which to compare seeds 
to be examined ; gummed labels for numbering or nam- 
ing samples ; blotting paper, strips of flannel, and clean 
sifted sand for gennination tests. 

A small germinator may be made by wetting sand in a 



46 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



soup plate, placing blotting- paper or flannel on this, then 
the seeds to be tested next, a second sheet of blotting 
paper and finally an inverted soup plate to check evapora- 
tion (Fig. 35). For small seeds. Petri dishes used by 
bacteriologists are more convenient than soup plates, be- 
cause they take up less space. A warm room will supply 
the needed heat. Seed pans and flower pots placed in 
trays of water or otherwise kept damp are useful in a 




FIG. 39— LABELS AND METHODS OF MARKING 

A, C, L \arious sizes of florists' labels. B, old label rotted off at bottom without 
losing name. D, zinc label with writing almost illegible after a year or more of use. 
E, G, H, nurserymen's labels for fastening to trees etc. F, old label showing 
wrong way to write name, thus losing the important part, the first syllable or two, 
by decay. J, nurserymen's label printed on botlj sides for quickness in handling. 



larger way. For more extensive work, as in schools and 
colleges, germinating ovens (Figs. 86, 87) will be found 
more convenient and useful. 

75. Conducting a seed test. — Representative samples of 
the seed to be tested are taken from the sacks or bins of 
seed. These are mixed to secure uniformity. A small 
sample of this composite sample is weighed, spread out 
and the good seed separated from the bad and the various 



si-:i-:i) ii.M iM, 47 

impurities, each by itself. Then each lot is weighed and 
the percentage of purity computed. From the pure lot 
thus separated, 100 or 200 seeds are selected and placed 
in a gern.lnator so they do not touch each other. In due- 
time under favorable conditions, sprouting will follow 
and the percentage of germination may be determined. 
To calculate the true value of the seed, multiply the per- 
centage of purity by the percentage of germination and 
divide by 100. For instance, suppose a sample to be 90 
per cent pure and have 80 per cent germination ; 
i)0 X 85 -^ by 100 r= 83.8 per cent. That isl 100 pounds 
would contain 83.3 pounds of pure, germinable seed and 
16.7 pounds of dead seeds, weed seeds, dirt, etc. What 
man in his right senses would pay for the latter? 

76. The longevity of seeds, the percentage of germina- 
tion and the purity of the sample have much to do with 
the resulting crop. In the table on page 49, the per- 
centages of purity and germination (by Duvel) arc high 
averages in high-grade seed ; the figures (years) on 
longevity are from Vilmorin. As an indication of the 
importance of securing high-grade seed the following 
instance si)eaks for itself. 



48 



PLANT PROPAGATION 




SEKl) Tl'.STINC. 



49 



CiKRMINATION' AND I.ONCJKVITY OF SI'.KDS 
[Purity and Germination figures from Duval; Longevity from Vilmorin.] 





Per Ctnt 






Per Cent 






>. 


a 


m'> 


Kind of Seed 


>. 


,§ 


M > 




.^ 


S c 


t. «. 






E Is 


u U) 




3 


o-a 


U c 




^ 


^S 




0, 


O 


<:j 




a, 


J 


<J 


.Vlfalfa 


99 


95 


_ 


Grass, Timothy 


99 


96 


2 


Asparagus 


99 


85 


- 


Velvet.. 


9/ 


HS 


- 


Barley .- 


99 


98 


.1 


Hemp 


99 


90 


- 


Beans 


99 


98 


3 


Kafir Corn. . . . 


99 


9/ 


- 


Beet, Garden 


99 


ISO* 


6 


Leek 


— 


— 


.i 


'" Sugar 


99 


150-175* 


6 


Lettuce 


99 


98 


S 




99 


96 


2 


Mustard 


99 


95 


4 


Cabbage 


99 


■ 95 1 


5 


Oats 


99 


96 


i 




98 
98 


85 
85 


4 or 5 
8 


Okra 


99 
99 


8U 
96 


s 


Celerv 


Onion 


2 


Clover, Alsike 


98 


95 


- 


Parsley 


99 


80 


A 




98 
58 
98 
96 


97 

9^ 

90 
90 


.3 


Parsnip 

Pea 


98 
99 
99 
99 


8.S 
98 
97 
96 


2 


" Red 


< 




Radish 

Rape 


5 


" White 


S 




99 
99 
99 
99 
99 


99 
94 
90 
95 
96 1 


2 

2 


Rice 


99 
99 
98 
98 
99 


9.S 
96 
85 
95 
95 


— 




Rye 

Salsify 

Sorghum 

Soy Bean 


2 




2 




- 


Cucumber 


2 




99 
99 


90 

85 


6 
10 


Spinach 

Sunflower 


99 
99 


90 
90 


.S 


Kndive 


- 


Fla.x 


99 
9.5 


95 

85 


2 


Sweet Pea 

Teosinte 


99 
99 


90 
90 


- 


Grass, Blue 


- 




90 
98 


90 
90 


~ 


Tomato 

Tobacco 


99 
99 


94 
90 


4 


" Fescue Meadow. . 


- 


' " Sheep's. . . 


96 


85 


- 


Turnip 


99 


98 


5 


Millet 


99 
9.S 


90 
90 


2 
2 


Velvet Bean. . . 
Vetch 


99 
99 


90 
93 


- 


" Orchard 






96 

98 


90 
90 


- 


Wheat 


99 


98 


2 


Rye 







* Beet "balls" usually contain two to si.x seeds- — the figures are for 100 balls tested. 

t Kale, cauliflower, collard, kohl-rabi, etc., have same figures. 

J Other vine crops — pumpkin, melon, squash, etc. — have same figures. 

77. Does it pay to test seed for germination? C. E. 
Myers ha.s furnished me the following figures on tests 
of crimson and sweet clover seed made prior to purchase. 
From three and two seedsmen respectively, he received 
samples and prices. 

Germination Test of Crimson and Sweet Clover Seed 



Seed Samples 



Price 



Percentage 



Crimson Clover, Sample I $6 '^2 

" 2 6.70 78 

3 5 94 

Sweet " " 1 15 82 

2 17 66 



50 



PLANT PUt)l'A(;ATl()X 



In these two series of tests it haj^peiied that the low- 
est priced seed gave tlie liighest g-ermination aivl the 
most expellsi^•e the lowest. Since the amonnt of time 
required to make the tests was scarcely more than an 
hour and the cost certainly not more than ."){) cents for 
each series, it is evident that a saving of $1 to $1.70 on 
the crimson clover and $2 on the sweet clover was made 




FIG. 41- STERILIZED VS UNSTERILIZED SOIL 



A, soil sterilized by heating before sowing 

growth. 



B, unsterilized soil. Notice weed 



on each bushel of seed bought, even without considering 
the higher percentage of plants likely to follow sowing 
these seeds. One interesting point in these tests is that 
the seedsman who quoted the lower price on sweet 
clover also quoted the highest on crimson clcjver. 

It must not be inferred from these instances that cheap 
seed is always or necessarily the better to buy. (^n the 
contrary low-priced seed is perhaps far more often the 
more expensive because of its probable dirtiness and low 
percentage of germination. Nothing but an actual test can 
determine tJiis point. 



sp:i-:i) 'i-kstinc; 



51 



78. Damping-off is a nursery inaii's and i^'ardcncr's term 
for llic tlccay of seedlings and cuttings, more especially 
just above the surface of the ground, 'idie conditions 
that favor it are excess of moisture in both soil and air, 
higher temperature than necessary for normal plant de- 
velopment, and poor light. The weak plants that develop 
under these conditions succumb to tiny fungi which live 
upon decaying vegetable matter in the soil, and which 




FIG. 42— FRAMES FOR STRAW MAT MAKING 

These are homemade contrivances. Nursery and greenhouse supply houses make 
mats by machine. 

live for months in spite of drouth or of frost. Should 
damping-ofif be noticed the healthy plants should be 
])ricked out (81) or transj)lanted in fresh soil to save 
them if possible. So rapidly does the trouble spread that 
thousands of seedlings or of cuttings may be lost in a 
single night. Perfect drainage in open soil with ample 
watering and fresh air are partial safeguards. Steam 
sterilization (Fig. 40) of the sand for several hours is 
often done with good results. Damping-ofif frequently 
follows copious watering of a bed which has been very 
dry longer than advisal)le. 

The fungi usually believed to cause damping-off are Pliytoplitliora 
oninivora (Pusarinm sp.), Pythiuin clebaryatniiii ; but V. Peglion, an 
Italian investigator, has identit'.ed several others — Sotrytes cinerca, 



52 



TLA NT rKOI'ACATlON 



I 



Tliklavia bas'icoht and I'lionia bdicoUi. \\y c-xpcriniciiting with soil 
infested with Pytliiinii dcbaryaiiuiii, heating to l.'?0 to 212 degrees 
and treating with 20 to 'M per cent solutions of formalin and various 
quantities of carbon liisulphide, he found that Camelina, a plant 
very susceptible to attacks of this fungus made good growths, the 
action of this fungus being reduced even to nothing. 

79. Damping-off seedlings in plant beds, according to the Minne- 
sota station, is commonly caused by Pythinm debaryainiiii or Rhizoc- 
tonia. These attack a large variety of plants as well as live upon 
dead organic matter in the soil. Very little can be done to check 
the disease when such conditions prevail. Therefore methods which 
kill fungi are needed to prevent the disease. The preventive 
methods must be applied before sowing the seed, otherwise the seed 
will be killed also. 




no. 4.i— WORK IN THE CUTllNG BENCH 

1. Opening a furrow with a wooden label. 2. Firming the cuttings in 
sand, side view. 3. End view. 4. Removing rooted cuttings for potting. 



the 



Chemical agents have been tested as fungicides against damping- 
ofif, but of these formalin alone has proved of value. Treattnent of 
the soil with formalin (one part formalin to 100 of water and lesser 
strengths), as frequently recommended, does not kill the fungus. 
Although it may check the disease for some time it will allow damp- 
ing-off to develop later if weather conditions permit. The value of 
formalin at these strengths, therefore, depends largely on the time 
weather conditions favorable to damping-ofif appear. 



si':i';i) 'jiisiixG 53 

Trcatinpf the soil with !-.')() fonnalin at the rate of two (|iiarts to 
tlie square foot of soil, will kill (ianiping-off fungi, and will hence 
clfcctiially prevent the malady under the most favcjrable weather 
CDiiditions for fungous growth. l'"ormalin soil treatment is also 
somewhat beneficial in stimulating i)lant growth and in killing some 
weed seeds. The chief objections are the cost, the time required 
f(jr it to act, and for the soil to dry out. 

[if the fungus gets into the cutting or seedling bed it may be 
checked more or less Ijy withholding water and allowing the sun to 
reach the sand or soil of the bed.] 

80. Sterilization of the soil by heat has proved most satis factf)ry 
from all standpoints, except that under certain conditions it may be 
more exi)ensive than formalin. Steam sterilization by the "inverted 
pan" method is esi)ecially recommended where a steam traction 
engine is availaljJe. [The temi)erature of the soil should reach :il() 
degrees at the bottom of the bed for at least 'M minutes.] 

Aside from preventing dam])ing-off several benelicial secondary 
effects may follf)w ; for instance, killing of weed seeds and insect 
pests, and greatly increased size and vigor of plant growth. As 
a cultural control growers should avoid infected, poorly drained 
soils and thick sowing of seed. The only means of checking the 
disease after it has started is to remove the covers in order to 
reduce the temperature and the moisture of the soil and of the air 
immediately above the plants. 

The United States Department of Agriculture secured- best re- 
sults in treating soil for dam])ing-off of coniferous seedlings by 
drenching with dilute sulphuric acid (one ounce to one gallon ) 
several days before seed sowing and a week after the seedlings 
appeared. In December there was a fine stand of healthy seedlings 
on the treated plot and the soil was free from alg?e and moss, while 
the check plat was green with algre and moss and there were prac- 
tically no seedlings left. Only Norway spruce seemed to suffer, 
hor this plant a weaker solution (1 part to 500) is recommended. 

According tf) another source, damping-off may be prevented by 
"treating the soil with dilute iron or copper sulphate." 

81. Pricking out (or off) is a ga/dener's term for trans- 
planting- seedlings while yet so small they can easily be 
lifted on a stick scarcely wider than a toothpick at its 
sharpened end. A better form consists of two points 
which form a blttnt V. The seedlings are thus moved 
from the seed pans and placed in other flats at greater 
distances apart, say an inch, until better rooted. Prick- 
ing out is done also to avoid risk of damping-off (78). 



CHAPTER V 
POTTING 



82. Potting, placing of rooted plants in flower pots. 

83. Potting soil should be light and friable so as to 
handle easily, drain readily and withstand crusting and 
baking after wetting. It should also be fertile in pro- 
portion to the needs of the plants to be grown in it — 
rich for some, poor for others. Also its friability must 
vary; for ferns l)e looser than ftn" roses. 




FIG. 44— POTTING SOIL MIXED AND UNDER COVER 

This soil has been passed through a machine "mixer" and is sifted, also by 
machine, ready for use. 

84. Preparing an ideal soil for potting. The best gen- 
eral potting soil is made as follows : In spring after 
grass has begun to grow well, remove sod from an old 
blue grass pasture or greenhouse sodding field where 
the soil itself is rich and deep. For convenience in han- 
dling, cut the sod in strips a foot or so wide, three inches 
thick and as long as can be easily handled either in rec- 
tangles or in rolls, the latter perhaps preferred. Place the 
sods close together on the ground in a layer, grass side 

54 



pen r INC, 



55 



down, oil a well-drained space adjacent to the grccnhonse. 
(Mincniciit widths are (3 to 10 feet. On this layer place 
twii nr three inches of well-rotted manure and sprinkle 
puheri/ed lime tui it — say, a scant ])ailful to the s(|uare 
rod Ivejieat alternate layers of sod and manure until a 
l)ile three to h\e or six feet hig^h with sloping sides and of 
any desired length has heen made. It is an ad\antagc to 
make the to]) concave, so it will hold water when needed. 

J.et the pile stand thus for two }ears or longer before 
being used. Then slice with a sharp spade vertically 
from top to bottom and 
mi.v thoroughh- bv 
throwing in a hea]) as 
slicing proceeds. At the 
same time, add enough 
sand to be plainly visible 
on the pile. 

Commercial green- 
house men cannot usual- 
ly afford so expensive a 
soil as this because of 
the cost of the turf and 
the loam — often $100 to 
S200 an acre for the 
surface three or four 
inches. They, there- 
fore, tise a rich gar- 
den loam with liberal cjuantities of compost and sand. 
For houses where little of the earth is sold with the 
plants the soil is returned to the field after being used 
in the greenhouse and there liberally fertilized and made 
to grow crops of clover, rye, buckwdieat and grass, each 
crop plowed under to fill the earth with vegeta1)le mat- 
ter for its next journey to the greenhouse. In such 
cases the soil is generally run through a mixing machine 
before it is used. Thus the soil area actually becomes 
richer and more friable from rear to vear. 




FIG. 45— SIFTING SOIL FOR POTTING 

The hand method of getting rid of clods and 
stones. 



56 



I'LANT rROl'AGATION 



85, Flower pots arc of two principal kinds; those 
with and those without rims. They range in one-half-inch 
sizes between two and seven inches, and in one-inch sizes be- 
tween 7 and 12 inches. Between two and two and one- 
half is a two and one-fourth-inch size. There are also 14. 
16, and 18-inch sizes, but tubs and boxes are usually more 
satisfactory and less expensive in these and larger ones. 
Sizes l)elow 16-inch are machine made in "standard" form. 
Straight-sided pots are little seen nowadays. Below the 
two-inch size are "thumbs" used for tiny plants. 

Azalea or three-fourth pots are most useful for growing 
ferns, azaleas and other house plants, lilies and. many other 
bulbs. They afford ample soil and root room, are not 

as unsightly as full-sized 
flower pots of the same 
width. Their "low 

down" effect is more 
pleasing to the eye than 
is that of the tall pot. 

"Seed pans" are earth- 
enware trays usually one 
to two inches deep. They 
the most largely used 
for growing ferns, seed- 
lings of small-seeded 
plants, etc. For this purpose they excel pots. 

The rimmed or "standard" pots (Fig. 21), though 
easier to grasp are harder on the hands than are those 
without collars when large numbers must be handled 
in a day, yet they are so i)opular that the old style col- 
larless ones are almost a curiosity in many sections of 
the country. Whichever style is chosen, it should be 
porous, never glazed. When to be first used, the pots 
should be dipped in water a few minutes and the surface 
water then allowed to evaporate. The pores of the pot- 
tery must be filled with water but the pots must not 
be wet when plants are set in them 




FIG. 46— GREENHOUSE SOIL SIEVES 
For fine work with seedlings, ferns, etc. 



POTTING 



57 



III many greenhouses old and dirty pots are no longer 
washed, ])ecause when expense and breakage incident to 
washing is reckoned, the cost is found to be too near tliat 
(if new i)<)ts to pa}'. 

86. The operation of potting is capable of a high degree 
of skill and speed. It is no unusual feat for a man to 




FIG. 47— TOMATO PLANTS IN PAPER AND EARTHENWARE POTS 
The paper pots readily rot, so may be left around the plants when transplanted. 

pot 5.000 rooted cuttings in 10 hours. The highest rec- 
ord which has come to the author's attention is 11.500 
verbena cuttings in 10 hours. This was made in 
the greenMouse of the late Peter Henderson of New York 
by "lim" Markey, who did only the potting, two boys 
keeping him supplied with soil, pots and cuttings and 
taking away the potted plants. 

Elimination of waste motion is the secret of such 



58 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



speed. Everything is arranged conveniently for a right 
handed man as follows : The soil is piled on the potting 
bench. At the left are the empty two-inch pots, in front 
are the cuttings, at the right an empty fiat for the potted 
cuttings. Both hands work at once thus : 1. The right 
seizes a handful of soil, the left an empty pot. 2. The pot 
placed in front of the operator is filled with part of the 
soil in the right hand while the now released left hand 
seizes a cutting. 3. The index finger of the right hand is 
thrust in the soil in the center of the pot, the left places 
the cutting in it. 4. The right discharges some soil 
around the cutting and both hands seize the pot he- 




FIG. 48— WRONG AND RIGHT WAYS TO FILL POTS 
A, too full; b, not full enough and plant too deeply set; c, right. 

tween the first and second fingers, the index fingers being 
on side of the pot remote from the operator's body. This 
holds the pot firmly while (5) the thumljs, first ]Kirallel 
with, and then at right angles to the body, one on each 
side of the cutting, press the soil firmly and imiformly. 
Then, 6, the right hand places the filled pot with a smart 
rap in the flat and the left hand seizes another empty 
pot. If the motioiTs are ])racticed slowly and carefully 
at first, speed will soon develop as the hands learn to 
make no false moves. Just as good work can be done 
speedily as slowly! 

87. Care needed in potting. — Simi)le though potting is, 



roTTlNG 



59 



it must 1)e properly done to get good results. Many 
losses of potted plants are due solely to carelessness. 
The potting soil must be neither too dry nor too wet, 
just the condition that when squeezed tirmly in the hand 
it leaves the impress of the fingers and shows several lit- 
tle cracks in it, but does not break down (too dry) nor 
remain as a gob of mud (tot) wet). 

The plants must be set at just the right depth (Fig. 
48). otherwise the}- will fail. Seedlings and cuttings 
must not be placed in pots too large for them. The 
almost universal size to start with is two-inch, though 
many ferns and other little plants are set at first in 
"thumb" pots, a still smaller size. The roots of cuttings 
must neither be too large nor too small, because in the 




Fig. 49— SHUTTERS FOR COVERING HOTBEDS AND COLD FRAMES 

Notice positions of the cleats. This arrangement favors easy piling and good 
ventilation for drying. 



first case there would be breakage, in the latter refusal to 
grow; one-eighth to one-fourth inch is a1)otit the usual 
length for speedy work. 

Always a two-inch ]iot should have a vacant s])ace one- 
fourth to one-third inch deei) at the top for water. The 
j)ots, when i)laced on the greenhouse bench, must l)e set level 
so as to avoid loss of water o\'er the edge. .\t first the i:>lants 
need shade. Lath shutters (big. 49). in general use, 
are placed on in\erte(l ])ots large enough to raise them 
above the jjlants. In hot, sunny weather. news])a])er or 
cheesecloth is used for additional shade for three days 
to a week at first, being placed early and removed late 
in the daw but gradually shortening the time shaded. 



6o 



PLANT I'KOPAGATION 



Sand to the depth of one-half to one inch on the bencli 
aids greatly in the retention of moisture as well as in 
placing the pots level. 

Repotting dangers. — It seems to be a rule that plants grown in 
the open ground attain larger size than those grown in flower pots ; 
also that those grown in large pots grow larger than those grown in 
smaller and smaller ones. Experiments have proved that the greater 
the number of repottings the smaller the plants so treated. 

88. Tomato propagation.— In Maryland, 83 varieties of tomatoes 
were grown experimentally, some in the usual way of transplanting, 
some from seed sown direct in 4-inch pots imbedded in earth and 
the seedlings thinned. There was loss by damping-off among the 




FIG. 50— REMOVING PLANT FROM POT 

A, placing the hands; b, rapping pot on hsnjh to loosen ball of earth; 
c, plant separated from pot. 



transplanted plants, but none arnong the pot grown. These latter 
suffered no loss or check when moved to the field; the transplanted 
plants were slower to start and to bloom. With 72 of the 83 va- 
rieties the pot plants yielded more than the others, and among the 
10 greatest yielders nine were potted. The average yield on an 
acre basis was 12^ tons, against 10^4, an increase more than enough 
to pay for the labor. The potted plants, as a whole, produced about 
twice as much fruit prior to August 15 as the others — 5'.) bushels, 
against 30. [This is of special interest from a market standpoint, 
because of higher prices early in the season. 1 Each of the 20 best 
earlv producers gave greatest j'ield from the potted plants. 

89. Transplanting lettuce and other plants experimentally in Wis- 
consin in the greenhouse seems to warrant the general conclusion 
that transplanting does not promote earliness nor increased yield, 
flnce transplanting, as of cabbage plants, from seed bed to field, or 
"pricking off" as commonly practiced in the greenhouse, is neces- 
sary to economize room, but repeated transplanting of vegetable 
plants is not advisable. 



rOTTlNG 



6i 



90. "Shifting" is the trade Icnn for transferring- potted 
l)lants to larger-sized pots. At a g-lance the trained man 
can tell when shifting is needed; the novice may "knock 
out" the plants to examine the roots. This is done as 
shown in Fig. 50, the top of the pot being rapped 
smartly on the edge of the bench. If the roots form a 
network around the earth, especially if they are dark 
colored, they must be shifted to avoid becoming "pot- 
bound." 

91. In knocking out plants for shifting, only one rap is 




FIG. 51— POT STORAGE OUT OF DOORS 

This being placed adjacent to the cold frames and hotbeds saves much time 
and labor. 



usually needed ; more waste time. Plants should never 
be shifted while the soil in the pots is either very wet 
or very dry ; only when dry enough to crumble beneath 
thumb and fingers. Pot-bound plants need special at- 
tention (92). Pots should be free from caked dirt 
and fairly clean. After removal from the small pots, 
each plant is "shouldered" ; i. e., part of the surface soil is 
rubbed off so fresh soil may take its place in the larger 
pot in which it is to be placed. 



C2 PLANT I'ROPAGATION 

Plants, soil, pots and flat being ready, the workman 
puts enough soil in the bottom of the pot to have the top 
of the ball of earth around the plant on a level with the 
rim of the pot. The plant being so placed by the left 
hand, the right hand hlls in soil; the pot is then grasped 
as in motion 4 al:ove (86), raised slightly and rapped 
twice on the bench, the thumbs pressing the soil as in 
motion 5, first in one i)osition then in the other. The un- 
pressed earth is then firmed in the same way and the 
shifted plant set in the flat at the right. Expert shifters 
with two boys to keep them supplied with material and 
to remove shifted plants easily shift 5.000 plants a day. 




FIG. 52— FLAT FULL OF PLANTS READY FOR TRANSPLANTING 

Canned tomato boxes make three convenient-sized flats each, when sawed apart 
twice around the sides. 

Shifts should be from small pots to the next size 
larger. Never skip a size in the fall, though sometimes 
with quick-growing suljjects in spring a size may be 
skipped; that is, a plant in a three-inch pot may be 
placed in a five-inch size, or a four-inch in a six. Usually 
a size at a time is best, particularly in commercial estab- 
lishments, where the aim is shipping-. A\Mien pots become 
larger than four-inch, and even in that size for shrubbery 
plants, drainage is necessary. "Crocks" ; that is, broken 
flower pots, are the orthodox things. A large piece is 
placed over the drainage hole in the pot and smaller 
pieces above to the dejjth of an inch in five and six-inch 
pots and twice as much in larger sizes. Pots larger than 



I'OTTIXC; 



^>3 



three inches should l;e set on gravel, cinders ur other loose 
material to insure drainai^e. 

i2. Pot-bound plants, those which have been checked 
1 \- remaining too long in the same pots and have been 
thus checked in growth, need special attention. Be- 
fore knocking out. the surface soil should l)e scraped 
clean to remove "moss" and some of the sour soil. After 
knocking out, the hard ball of earth should be crushed 
between the palms of the hands, perhaps broken by raps 
of the closed hand. The plants may then be replaced in 
the same pots with additional fresh soil. In most cases, 
however, it is better to stand the plants, pots and all, in 
water, say half an hour, and then wash and work out the 
earth in water either in a tub or in a gentle stream. 
After washing, the plants should be placed in pots one or 





FIG. 53— COMMON LAYERAGE 

A, the branches are bent down and buried. B, the layer enlarged to show wound 
to hasten root production. 



two sizes smaller than those they have been in. vShrtib- 
bery plants should be pruned back. Plenty of shade but 
little water is needed until the roots "take hold" and 
danger of wilting has passed. The appearance of new 
growth is the favorable sign. 

93. Flat, a shallow box in which seeds are started and 
seedlings grown until large enough for pricking out 
(81) or transplanting, usually of a size easy to handle 
when lilled with two to four inches of soil. It is con- 
\enient to have flats of some standard size that will fit 
the bench or hotbed space without waste. 



CHAPTER VI 
PROPAGATION BY BUDS— LAYERAGE 

94. Layerage is the rooting of stems while still attached 
to the parent plant. The rooted pieces are cut ofif to 
form new plants. Many species propagate themselves 
naturally by various modifications of layerage and many 
which cannot readily be propagated from cuttings (black 
raspberry) easily do so by means of layers. Layering 
is one of the easiest and most popular methods of propa- 
gation. The parent plant supplies food to the layer until 
this is capable of caring for itself. In outdoor practice 
the operation is best performed in early spring. 

Grape, bitter sweet, Virginia creeper, honeysuckle and other vines 
when trailing on the ground become imbedded more or less in earth 
and take root at the nodes. Blackcap raspberry stems arch them- 
selves till their tips touch the earth, when the terminal buds turn 
upward, and roots are produced from the thickened ends. Other 
buds near the tips send out shoots which also take root. 

95. Styles of layering. Layering is practiced in many 




FIG. 54— TRICKS IN TRANSPLANTING 

a, b, and e, dotted lines show parts of tops removed; C, and d, show method of 
handling "leggy" plants 

64 



rkOPAGATlUN 15V I'.L'DS — LAVKKACE 



^>5 



ways, chief anions^' wliicli arc : Simple, conipoutid or ser- 
pentine, conlinuous, mound or stool, I'hinese or pot. 

96. Simple layers (Fig. 55) are made by Ijending and 
covering- the branches with more or less soil. In general, 
a shallow and short trench or a small hole is made in the 
earth and the branch pegged or weighted down in it prior 
to being covered with soil to the depth of two or three 
inches but with 6 to 12 inches of the extremity of the 
shoot uncovered to draw sap and elaborate plant food. 
To hasten root formation the stems are often wounded 




FIG. 55— LAYERING OF VARIOUS KINDS 

A, ordinary layering; a, layering pegs; B, continuous layer; C, serpentine layer 
(alternate nodes pegged down). D, mound or stool layer. 



at the points to be covered. W'ounding may he done by 
scraping the bark or cutting through the cambium layer 
on the lower side of the branch below the bud or shoot to 
grow, or it may l)e by severely twisting the branch at this 
])oint. Hacking with a knife near the nodfe is also often 
done. These woundings tend to form adventitious buds 
on which root growth in asexual propagation depends. 

So many species and varieties of shrubs may be prop- 
agated by simple layering that it seems probable any 
woody plant ca])able of being bent to the earth can be 
thus propagated. (Currant, gooseberry, golden bell.) 

Black raspberry canes and shoots cannot be made to 
root well when covered at more than their tips. (Fig. 
50.) AMien the tips are about ready to take root they 



66 



r-LANT J'KorACA'llON 



should be anchored with pebbles or clods of earth to 
prevent whipping about by wind. This is especially 
important where the ground is hard and dry. Since this 
method is the only one practiced in propagating l)lack 
raspberries, it is sometimes called tih laycriiuj. In the fol- 
lowing spring the rooted tips are severed for i)lanting 
with about six inches of the stems to serve as handles. 

1 he buds from which the new 
canes are to develop must not be 
set deeper than the surface of the 

Snil. 

07. Compound or serpentine 
layers (Fig. 55) are made by cov- 
ering the stems at several points 
alternating witli other points not 
C()\ered. The method is most 
frequently used for propagating 
N'incs and other long supple 
stems. Management is the same 
as for simple layers. 

98. Continuous layers (Fig. 55) 
are made from plants which root 
FIG. 56-BLACK RASPBERRY rcadilv whcu tlic wholc branch 

ROOTED TIP - . . ... 

White spot near center is the CXCCpt the tip IS buned With 

""* ''"'^- three or four inches of earth. 

Since the buds on most plants will not develop into shoots 
if buried, only a few plants are adapted to this form of 
layering, among them red osier, willow, high Imsh cran- 
berr}' and snowball. 

99. Modified continuous layering, popular in propagat- 
ing varieties and species of grapes and other vines that 
do not root readily from cuttings, is practiced as fol- 
lows: In spring new canes are laid in open trenches 
two or three inches deep and pegged down. \\'hen the 
buds have developed shoots, the opposite sides of the 
parent canes are wounded at the nodes and earth is 
drawn over the canes and the bases of the shoots. After 




PROPAGATION I!V P.rDS [.AVERAGE 



67 



having taken root the canes are cut on each side of a rooted 
node bearing a shoot. 'J'hus as many i)lants may be se- 
cured as there are shoots. 

100. Chinese or pot layers (Fig-. 58), used ahuost wholly 
in greenhouse practice, are made on up- 
right stems which cannot l)e readily bent 
as in simple layering or covered at their 
bases antl treated by the mound method. 
It is of sjiecial use for re-rooting plants 
with stems that have become "leggy" 
Wm (drac;ena, oleander, croton, rhododen- 

dron, rubber plant, pandanus). It is also 
of service in making the 1)ranches of 
such plants take root. 




FIG. 57— 



HOMEMADE 
LAYERING POT 



While still growing in 
their natural positi(Mi, the 
stems are wounded, usuall}- 
by girdling or notching, and 
bound with earth, moss or 
some other moisture-holding 
material held in place with 
raffia or cloth bands. Until 
roots have developed, the 
bandage and its contents are 
kept moist by watering 
when necessary — r an eas\- 
•matter in a greenhouse. 
Roots push out from the 
upper side of the girdle or 
notch. As soon as they ha\e 
filled the ball of moss the 
stem is severed below the 
wound and planted usuall\ 
in a flower pot. Sometimes 
the leafage is reduced, as in 




FIG. 58— CHINESE LAYERS 
A favorite way to increase crotons 



68 



PLANT PROPACiATION 



transplanting. Often special flower pots with open sides 
(Fig. 57) are used in this method; but as good results are 
secured with moss alone as with them. 

101. Mound or stool layering (Fig. 55), which consists 
of burying the bases of shrub stems deeply with earth, thus 
forcing the striking of roots, is of special utility in propa- 
gating short-stemmed and stiff-branched shrubs. Quinces, 
English gooseberries and Paradise apple stocks are so grown. 
When many plants are desired, it is common the previous 
season to cut down the shrubs to be used thus so as to 

produce numerous 
shoots close to the 
ground and the center of 
the shrub. Preparatory 
to covering, these shoots 
are wounded close to the 
ground so roots will be 
produced quickly in 
abundance. One sea- 
son's growth is usually 
enough to make plants capable of being used for 
setting out. The advantage of the method is that strong, 
stocky plants are thus produced. 

102. Runners (Fig. 60), special, 
branches formed by strawberry and 
produce little clusters of leaves at 
from which, under favorable conditions, roots are devel- 
oped and thus new plants formed. All that is necessary 
to have the roots develop is to anchor the rosettes of 
leaves with clods of earth or pebbles for a few days. 

Often the runners are made to root in 2 or 2 H -inch flower pots 
plunged full depth in the strawberry bed and filled with good soil. 
Such plants usually give better results than those allowed to grow 
without this restriction, because there is little or no loss of roots 
when the potted plants are transplanted. 

Four to eight plants may be produced in succession by one runner; 
but since the later ones are considered inferior and weak because 
they have less time in which to grow, only the first one or perhaps 
two rosettes on any one runner are allowed to grow for making 



1 




STYLES OF LAYERING POTS 



usually creeping 
some other plants, 
each second node 



PUUI'ACATION IJY 15UDS — LAYERAGE 



r,9 



plants citlier to transplant or to bear fruit. In field practice no such 
care as this is taken, the ]>lants being allf)vved to root freely within 
the limits of the matted or hedgerow width. As in all other asexual 
methods of propagation, runners i)roduce the same variety as the 
parent plants from which thev are formed. 

103. Rapid strawberry propagation. — C. Gazeau, a French in- 
vestigator, claims that strawberries may be rapidly propagated 
thus : 




FIG. 60— STRAWBERRY PLANTS READY FOR SETTING 

1. Potted runner plant three weeks after taking root. 2. Plant typical of those 
used in spring setting. This has grown naturally in the field. 3. Same plant as 
in 1 with earth washed off, compared with plant of same age but not potted. 



When the runners first develop terminal buds with rosettes of 
leaves, they are layered with only the leaves exposed. Thus they 
are protected from accidents and the weather and are in most favor- 
able conditions for rooting. In about two weeks roots will have 
formed and the runners extended. These extensions may be rooted 
similarly and the operation repeatec six oi eight or even more times. 
Mother plants ofte i develop six or eight runners, so this would mean 
36 to 48 plants thus far. But the first rooted layers will also de- 
velop secondary runners soon after the primary ones have struck root 
and these secondary runners may be treated Hke the primary ones. 
Thus the number of plants would be limited almost wholly by the 
season, the efforts of the propagator and the space at command. 
But then the tertninal buds may l)e used for making cuttings as soon 



70 



PLANT PROPAGATION' 



as the rosettes have two well- formed leaves, the runner being cut 
close to its mother plant and the cuttings placed in a propagating 
1)e(l. The author finds cuttings less successful than layers, the 
jihints being less vigorous and slower to multiply. Only about 35 
per cent as many cutting plants can be made as layer plants in a 
given time. In such work the original mother 
plants were set about six feet apart each way 
the previous autumn in a deeply worked and 
heavily manured bed. The growing season may 
be lengthened by using cold frames. Intensive 
culture is essential, so is watering with liquid 
manure. Plants produced by this method were 
exceedingly vigorous and yielded abundantly the 
following year, whereas by the ordinary field 
method, they did not bear wdl until the second 
year from taking root. 

104. Bulbs are usually subterranean, 
specialized buds composed of short 
rudimentary axes inclosed in trans- 
formed and thickened leaves or bulb 
scales filled with food. Usually 
they are formed at the bases of the stems, 
though they often develop from i)uds inside the parent 
bulb, generally in the axil of a bulb scale. They are 
common among plants which have a long resting 
period, as in arid regions, though they also occur among 
plants of other regions. 




FIG. 61— 



TRIMMING 

STRAWBERRY 

ROOTS 




FIG. 62— TULIP PLANTING IN WASHINGTON STATE 

1. Making furrows. 2. Placing bulbs. As good bulbs are produced in 
Puget Sound district as in Holland. The industry is in its infancy 



PROPAC.ATIltX i;V I'.l'DS LAN' i:UA(_iF, 



71 



The trade uses the term "Dutch l)ull)s" to designate 
those species which come commercially fnim Holland 
(hyacinth, tulip, narcissus, etc.), blossom in early ,>i)rini;, 
and after their leaves die down remain dormant until 
the autumn, when they develop roots lor the following- 
season's flowers. Hence the importance (1) of jdanting 
them early in the fall so root growth will be strong 
before winter sets in, and (2j of allowing the leaves to 
die naturally so the bulbs will store ample food. 

105. Bulblet, bulbel, bulbil, bulbule, are terms concern- 
ing which authors do not agree, h'or instance, one defines 
"hulbels" as borne attached to the mother l)ull), and bulb- 
lets as borne above ground, generally in a leaf axil. 
Another applies "bulbel" to the latter delinition and says 
that bulblet is synonymous with "bulbil." In this book 
no distinction is made; "bulblet" is most used. 

106. Separation is plant ])ro])agation by \egetative parts 




FIG. 63— CLASSES OF BULBS 

I. Scaly bulb of tiger lily, 2, solid bulbs (corms) of gladiolus and tuberose and 
tunicate buib of onion. 3, tunicate bulh of onion in cross section showing the 
sheathing bulb leaves. 



72 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



that naturally detach themselves at the close of the grow- 
ing season and become or develop new plants. 

107. Bulblets are produced from transformed flower 
buds on stems above ground by top onions, garlic and 
some other plants ; from transformed leaf buds in the 
axils of the leaves by tiger lilies (Fig. 2) ; and below 
ground around the bases of "mother" bulbs. 




FIG. 64— HYACINTH PROPAGATED NATURALLY 

On left, bulbs as offered for sale. Other groups of bulbs naturally splitting up into 

smaller ones. 



108. Bulbs and corms often form a few bulblets or 
cormels (respectively) around their bases. Sooner or 
latter these grow to normal flowering size. The larger 
ones may be separated after the plants are dug. It is. 
however, usualTy better to leave the small ones attached 
to the main bulbs until they are large enough to produce 
flowers the followinsf season. 



I'U()1'A(;ai KIN v.y lams — i,a\ i:i<A(;ii 73 

109. Bulbs are of three classes: a, scaly (lily) ; b, tuni 
catc or laminate (onion, hyacinth) ; c, solid (crocus, gla- 
diolus). lk)tanically the last are called corms. 

110. Scaly bulbs (Fig. 6)5) are composed of loose, thick- 
ened scales \\hich, after the l)ulb has flowered, may sep- 
arate in the soil and form new but little bulbs. Ad- 
vantage is taken of this in propagation. . 

111. Easter lily bulb propagation from seeds, experimentally, on 
the Pacific Coast has been found to be quicker than from scales or 
even smaller bulbs. Under favorable conditions plants will give 
salable bulbs the first year. The usual sizes secured are tive to seven 
inches, but a considerable percentage of seven to nine is common 
where good attention is given. The crop ripens in early August. 

In the Easter lily industry of Bermuda many scales accidentally 
broken from the bulbs in digging and handling take root without 
any care and produce bulbs. The growers rarely take advantage of 
this method of propagation because enough bulhlets are produced 
to supply the needs of planting. Where the plan is employed, as 




FIG. 65— KNIFE USED TO "SCOOP" HYACINTH BULBS 

with rare or costly species and varieties, from a dozen to two dozen 
of the looser, thicker outside scales are gently cut in mid-autumn 
to mid-winter from the hard base of the bulb, which thus does 
not cease to be useful for replanting. 

These scales are thrust an inch deep in light, sandy loam in a 
propagating frame or flats or pots and treated like cuttings. 

Damp sphagnum is sometimes used instead of soil. If the soil 
is kept slightly moist and the temperature under HO but not below 
4"), some hardy and half hardy species will form bulhlets in a month 
or even less ; others require three months or more. Tender species 
often seem to need a little bottom heat. 

If conditions have been favorable and the scales fully "ripe" when 
planted one or more bulhlets should have developed at the base of 
each scale. Tf the planting has been done late, the flats or pots may 
be i)laced in a shaded frame outdoors in spring and left there during 
summer, or the bnlhlets may be potted as soon as they have rooted 
and later transplanted in nursery beds. The scales of hardy species 
are usually left in the flats or outdoor frames all summer and 
mulched over the following winter. In the second spring they are 



PLANT PKUPAGATION 




FIG. 66— HYACINTH PROPAGATION 

Reading down — natural method; notched 
bulbs early stage, later stage; final stage. 
The largest of the bulbs may become large 
enough lor sale in two years. 



transferred to nursery beds. 
At the close of the second 
season the majority should 
be large enough for sale. 

Lily bulbs are best dug 
soon after their tops have 
died. The shorter time they 
remain out of the ground 
and the cooler they are kept 
the better. Small bulblets 
should be allowed to retnain 
attached to the parent bulbs ; 
but those, half an inch or 
more across, may be sepa- 
rated and grown in nursery 
beds another season. 

112. Easter lilies from seed. 
— To avoid lily disease, G. W. 
Oliver advocates growing 
Easter lilies from seed rather 
than from bulbs. He has 
thus produced plants which 
bloomed within seven months. 

113. Lily bulb disease is 
caused by R!ii::opiis nccaiis, 
a parasitic fungus which ap- 
parentlj^ cannot penetrate un- 
broken tissues, but gains 
entrance to the bulbs through 
broken roots ; for bulbs ex- 
perimented with were not 
diseased when dug- A brief 
immersion in salicylic acid or 
dilute corrosive sublimate 
solution (1 to 100) will de- 
stro}^ all spores on the bulbs. 
Daffodils are subject to the 
same disease. Precautionary 
measures, such as rotation of 
crops, avoidance of injury to 
roots and destruction of ref- 
use, are recommended. 
When exported the bulbs 
should iirst be dipped in the 
fungicide and allowed to 
sweat thoroughl)^ before 
shipment. 

114. Tunicate or lam- 
inate bulbs. By ordi- 
nary, natural increase 



i'KorAt;Ario.\ I'.v r.uos — LAVi:KAe;K 

only two to half a dozen bulblets are reproduced 
each year. These ordinarily require one to three or four 
}ears to attain salable size. For rapid propagation the 
bulbs are handled as described by Fred De Meulder in 
the Florists' Exchange, condensed as follows : 

115. Hyacinth propagation — Nature has an easy method of in- 
creasing tulips, narcissus, crocus and other bulbous plants. These 
bulbs, dividing into several parts, multiply themselves without the 
aid of human skill. Not so the hyacinth, which if left to its own 
devices, multiplies in such a way that each succeeding generation of 
young buli)S is more dwarfed than the ft)rmer, making it impossible 
to get anything like fair specimens. 

It was ol)served that the hyacinth generally forms bulblets where 
the old bulbs have been injured. This useful hint has led to pur- 
posely wounding the bulbs. Repeated experiments have developed 
two distinct methods; "scooping" and "notching." In the first (Fig. 
69) the hard base of the bulb is cut away, leaving the bottom scooped 
out; every section or layer of the bulb is thus cut through. In the 
second method the cutting is done transversely to a depth which the 
cultivator has learned from experience to estimate. 

Each treatment has advantages and drawbacks. Bulbs scooped 
leave three times the number of bulblets and of much greater vitality, 
as appears from the preference shown them in the selection of ma- 
terial for forcing. Those notched give less returns, but in a much 
shorter time, producing flowering bulbs in three to four years, while 
the others require four to live. More skill is required in scooping 
than in notching, ihou'di a casual oliserver might say that both are 
delicate operations. Perhaits the cultivator bases his estimate of the 
skill needed on the comparative value and munber of bulblets en- 
dangered, so that operation woidd be the more critical which is to 
l)ring about the better and more numerous bulblets. If gouged 
out too nnicli, wounding the bull) to the extent of seriously weak- 
ening it, a linnted amount of enfeebled yoimg bulbs is the result; 
if scooped not enough, the remaining solid matter at the base ef- 
fectually impedes or even frustrates the formation of bulblets. 

The second method seems to entail as much risk to the mother 
bulb and her offspring. Transverse cutting looks simple enough ; 
and so it is. But long experience and careful attention have taught 
the workmen just how deeply to cut. Here again there is danger 
of seriously damaging the bulb. Cut too deeply, and the whole 
bulb is lost: not deeply enough, a very limited and dwarfish prog- 
eny. Planters differ in their use of the two methods; dividing the 
annual stock equally between the two is common. 

Both classes of bull)S undergo practically the same treatment in 
the "nurse-room," a i)lace in the bulb house reserved for them and 
kept at a high tempcratur(\ Here they remain until — after a 
fortnight or so — al)out one hundred bulblets in the case of scooped 



PLANT PROPAGATION 




FIG. 67— HYACINTH PROPAGATION 



Reading down— cutting the bulbs; nursery 
storage house; interior of house showing 
shelves for storing cut bulbs; planting the 
bulbs after being stored. 



bulbs, and thirty in that of 
notched ones are formed 
upon them. They are left 
until after all the other 
bulbs are planted so as to 
give them the care of the 
nursery as long as possible. 
Then, usually the last week 
in October or the first in 
November, they are taken 
to the field and planted. 
The ground has been care- 
fully prepared for them; 
well dug and liberally dress- 
ed with well-rotted cow 
manure earlier in the year. 
This kind of fertilizer is 
preferred to others, both 
because it is cheaper and 
because it is less harmful 
to the hyacinth, whose ex- 
tremely sensitive bulb would 
be burned up by commer- 
cial fertilizers. Hyacinths 
cannot be set in the same 
ground except at two-year 
intervals, or at one-year in- 
tervals if the soil is turned 
up from a much greater 
depth. Tulips and hyacinths 
thrive on ground used for 
each other alternately. 

Taken to the field, the 
bulbs are set in the ground 
about five inches deep and 
an area of about five inches 
square is allowed for each. 
The flower beds are three 
feet wide and a path one 
foot wide is left between 
them. When all is ready, 
the whole field is covered 
with about 10 inches of hay 
or straw; a necessary pre- 
caution, for the hyacinth is 
very susceptible to cold. The 
fields lie thus till spring-, 
when tops develop. The 
flower stems are cut about 
10 days after flowers appear 
to strengthen the bulbs. 



I'UOPAGATION BY BUDS LAVERAGE 7/ 

The buibs now begin to enlarge and are left to grow during 
April and May. About the middle of May, with fair, warm 
weather, the leaves turn yellow, a sign that the bulbs are matured 
and can be taken out. 

When the bulbs are dug, the new bulblets are the size of acorns; 
and the mother bulb has almost entirely disappeared, having served 
as food for her numerous progeny. These are taken to the 
warehouses and placed on lath frames to dry, merely a matter of 
jjjenty of air and ordinary summer temperature. This is also 
the case with the old bulbs of the "notched" class. The opinion 
prevalent in some quarters that it is necessary to apply absor- 
bent material to all bulbs after treatment experience has proved to 
be without foundation. Only in the case of "scooped" bulbs is it 
found necessary to apply an aljsorbent. 

Cleaning the bulbs, a process always attended with danger of 
damage, is deferred until fall when an injury will be speedily 
healed by the earth in which the bulbs are soon after placed. Set 
in the ground again in October, the new bulbs bear leaves the fol- 
lowing spring. The second year those of the notched class flower, 
while the others need still another season. The flowering bulbs 
ready for shipment are carefully sorted, packed with chaff in 
large paper bags or in boxes according to the quantity. 

The propagation of some species of tulips must be left entirely 
to nature; no scientific cutting of the bulb can be done. Left 
to itself this plant yields three or four bulblets only one or two of 
which survive and mature. The process of growing the young 
bulbs is simple. The bulblets appear attached to the mother bulb 
after the blooming period, the old bulb being "eaten up." The fol- 
lowing spring the little ones are removed, cleaned and re-planted, 
the bulblet thus having taken two years to mature. 

116, Corms (Fig. 63) usually produce one to three new 
ones above the old ones, which shrivel and die. Between 
the old and the new several little ones called "spawn" 
are formed. These may be separated and grown a year 
or two to form large corms. Besides the central bud, 
from which the flower stem is usually produced, a corm 
often bears, near its apex, several little buds, which may 
be artificially made to form new corms (or cormels) by 
cutting through the substance of the bulb around them. 
After the original corm has borne its flower stem and 
leaves, it gradually shrivels and dies and a new corm 
forms around the base of the stem above the old corm. 

117. Care of bulbs and corms. From the garden stand- 
point bulbs and corms are of two classes : a, spring bloom- 
ing, b, summer blooming. The former, all hardy, are 



78 



PLiVNT PROPAGATION 




FIG. 68— HYACINTH PROPAGATION 
Top, harvesting; middle, cleanins bulbs; bottom, machine grading. 



PRoi'At;ATi()X \',y i;ui)S — lavkuacI': 



79 



planted in fall for out(l<K)r blooming and nuilcliCMl with 
leaves or litter during- winter. For best results over a 
series of years their tops must be allowed to mature 
before being cut or dug. When dug they must be dried 
in the shade, cleaned and stored in bags or trays in an 
airy, dr}.. cool place till fall. Most spring-blooming 
bulbs (hyacinth, tulips, narcissus) come from Holland. 

Summer-blooming bulbs (gladiolus, tuberose, zephyr- 
anthes, etc.) are mostly tender. They are planted in 
spring, usually after the soil has become warm. Bc- 




FIG. 69— SCOOPED HYACINTH BULBS 

Early and later stages respectively. The bulblets require two to five years to reach 

salable sizes. 



cause of their tenderness they must l)e dug before the 
ground freezes hard, and after drying in an airy shed or 
other shelter, stored in a dry, warm place such as a cellar 
with a furnace in it nr on boards under greenhouse 
benches. Before resetting in spring they must be cleaned. 

118. Temperatures for bulb storing. — Lily-of the-valley pips are 
cold stored at 2.'5 to .'!() degrees and l)ull)s at 17 for the first two 
weeks, after which the temperature is raised and kept at 24 till the 
bulbs are needed for forcint^- in s'-eenhouses. 

119. Bulb growing in America. Tuberoses have long 
been grown extensively in North Carolina; gladioli in 
New York, Ohio, Kentucky and other states; and other 
summer-blooming bulbs in various parts of America; 



8o 



PLANT I'Kcn'AGATlON 



but SO far we have no tunicate or scaly bulb industry 
comparable with that of Japan, Bermuda or Holland. 
Probably this is because until recently little attention 
has been devoted to the work. But good bulbs can be 
grown in this country. 

120. The bulb industry in Washington State has been slow to de- 
velop, mainly because the rail cost of delivery in eastern markets is 
higher than the water cost from Europe. The United States De- 
partment of Agriculture has for several years been experimenting 
in this industry and has published a progress report. Virginia 
grown narcissus, tested at the Department of Agriculture with 
European bulbs from three sources, gave decidedly better results. 

An Illinois experimenter is reported to have grown annually 
about 100,000 bulbs of tulip, narcissus and lily-of-the-valley on low 
well-drained, deep, black loam, heavily manured with stable manure. 
The majority of the bulbs were somewhat smaller than the imported 
ones, but in earliness and use for forcing, size of flowers and length 
of stem were apparently as good, except lily-of-the-valley flowers, 
which excelled in size, substance and number of bells. 

12.1. Division is a form of separation in which the parts 
do not naturally break apart but may be easily torn or 

cut from the parent 
plant (rhizomes, tubers, 
offsets, crowns). Where 
separatif)a ends and divi- 
sion begins is hard to 
say, because they blend 
one into the other. 

122. Rhizome, or root- 
stock, a subterranean 
stem, especially if uni- 
formly thick, for storage 
of plant food. 

123. Stolon, a slender 
branch which naturally 
takes root or bears a 
bulb at its extremity, 
where it forms a new 

70-BULB "SCOOPING" MACHINE ^^^^^^^^ j^ j^ produCcd 
by U. S. Government in Washington - ■• ■• ^.,„,1 

State bulb growing, abovc or bclow grouud. 




FIG. 

Used 



I'ROrAGATlON 13 V 15UUS LAVliKAGE 



124. Off -sets arc short, hilcral hraiiclics or stolons pro- 
duced near the bases of plants lo serve in natural propa- 
gation. They usually take root and become new plants 
(houseleek, also known as hen and chickens). 

125. Crowns are rooted buds formed usually at the 
tips of rhizomes or underg-round stems and at the close 




FIG. 71— SWEET POTATO PROPAGATION 

1. Dropping and planting "slips." 2. "Slips" as pulled from propagating bed. 

3. Fire-heated hotbed. 



82 



PLANT PROPAGATION 




Tool Room 
12 X 12 FT PTf 



Forcing Roon-, 



Hot Bed 6 >-■ 60 ri 




HC 72— FIRE-HEATED HOTBED OR SWEET POTATO PLANT STARTER 

A sectional view through side; B, ground plan; C, cross sections; D, general 
outside view; E, construct'on; F. detail. 



PKOPACATION V.\ lUDS 1,A^'I•:RA(;I•: 



«3 



t)f ihc gTowinj^ season of the iiulixidual species. Each 
season they push forward and also develop tiowering 
stems and lea\es (May apple, achillea, Solomon's seal, 
Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, etc.). Lily-of-the-valley 
is one of the commercially most important crown-bearing 
plants. Its "pips" are annually imported from Europe 
by the million to supply the demands of florists. Until 
needed for forcing, the pijis are generally cold stored. 




HIG. 73— IRISH PUTATCtS Sl'ROliTING 

At left, tuber sproutinK in cellar; middle, one sprouted in full sunlight; right, 
tuSer planted in soil. 

126. Rosette, a cluster of lea\cs or other organs ar- 
ranged somewhat like the petals of a d()ul)le rose; for 
instance, the radical leaves of dandelion and carrot, the 
stolons of houseleek. 

127. Rough division is often practiced when herbaceous 
perennials grow too thick (])hlox, rhuliarb, peony, iris) 
ly digging up and cutting the clumps in pieces with a 
rharp spade. The best pieces are re-planted. Many 
shrubs (snowball, lilac, barberry) are so treated. This, 



84 PLANT PROPAGATION 

the crudest form of division, is little practiced in a com- 
mercial way, more in home gardens. 

128. Tubers are short, thickened parts of subterranean 
branches (Irish potato, dahlia) stored with plant food, 
largely starch, to start new plants at the beginning of 
the next growing season or other period of stress. An- 
other view is that parent tubers serve as water res- 
ervoirs, since experiment has shown that they are heavier 
after the plant has grown several weeks than before 
growth starts, due to accumulation of water during plant 
growth. Often thickened roots (sweet potato) are popu- 
larh^ classed with tubers. Botanically the distinction is 
that true tubers have "eyes" or buds, whereas thickened 
roots do not. In practice, true tubers (Irish potato) are 
often used for making cuttings, whereas thickened roots 
(sweet potato) are generally planted whole, either direct 
in the field or in hotbeds (Figs. 72, 80), and sprouts taken 
from them for transplanting. 

When tubers are planted whole, just as broken from the parent 
plant, the process is called division ; but when cut in pieces, each 
bearing one or more eyes, it is called cuttage (138). From the eyes 
shoots are developed. Roots form at the bases of these shoots 
(Fig. 73), not from the tuber itself. As growth progresses special 
stems are produced above the roots and swell into new tubers 

Tubers are most frequently found in arid climates, but are by no 
means rare in moist ones. Like bulbs, some are hardy, some tender. 
Hardy species (Jerusalem artichoke) do best left in the open 
ground until spring; tender ones (dahlia, potato) must be dug in 
fall and stored in a cool place not too dry nor too moist, otherwise 
they will either shrivel or mold. 

When true tubers are cut (dahlia) each piece must have at least 
one bud, because such tubers do not produce adventitious buds, but 
when thickened roots (sweet potato) are cut and placed in a prop- 
agating bed, adventitious buds develop and produce stems. Roots 
almost never grow from the tubers or the cuttings themselves, but 
from the bases of sprouts. The shoots may, therefore, be removed 
and planted separately, as is almost always done with sweet potato 
and often in increasing stock of new varieties of Irish potato. Other 
shoots soon develop from the tubers, and the process may be re- 
peated several times. Pseudo-bulbs of orchids are similarly handled. 

129. Hastening growth of potatoes may be done in three wavs 
summarized by the Rhode Island Station as the result of experiments 
thus : a, by planting sets in pots in greenhouses and transplanting 



i'Ut)i'A(;Ai'i().\ i;v nuDS — i-Avi-:KAt;i': <S5 

U) open ground; b, I)y "sprouting" — that is, planting sets thickly in 
cold frames, and when ready to "break ground" transplanting them 
to the field, etc.; c, by "budding" — that is, subjecting seed tubers the 
size of hens' eggs from four to six or more weeks to the action of 
moderate heat and light so one or two strong buds of a dark color 
and readj' to develop leaves and roots are formed on each tuber, 
while all other buds remain practically dormant. Budded seed 
tubers, compared with dormant ones, in 8!) days from planting gave 
an increase of nearly 22 bushels of merchantable potatoes and a gain 
in total yield of ;52 1-3 bushels an acre. Compared in 111 days they 
gave an increase of 41 bushels of merchantable potatoes and a total 
gain in yield of 54 2-3 bushels an acre. For budding, seed tubers of 
one to three ounces are to be preferred. They may be "greened" by 
exposure to light on ground free from vegetation, directly after 
digging , and placed in trays at any convenient time during winter. 

130. Germinating seed potatoes in boxes in Scotland has given an 
average of nearly 1,100 pounds an acre gain in crop. Potato tubers 
partially dried are also said to make more productive plants than 
those not dried. 

131. Sweet potato propagation — Sweet potatoes develop new 
stems from adventitious buds which appear anywhere on the surface. 
Usually they are propagated by being split lengthwise in early spring 
and laid flat side downward in a mild hotbed filled with light soil 
or sand. The "slips" or sprouts are carefully pulled when four to 
six inches long and transplanted in the field. New varieties of Irish 
potato are often propagated in this way and also by stem cuttings 
so produced (166). 



" CHAPTER vn 

BOTTOM HEAT 

132. Bottom heat is the heat applied beneath the grow- 
ing plants by means of fermenting material (manure, 
spent tan bark, brewers' grains, etc.) by warm flues, hot 
water or steam. It is used more or less for all kinds of 
seeds started in advance of the outdoor season, espe- 
cially for those of warm climate plants, 1)ut only seeds of 
certain tropical plants require high heat to germinate. 
Most garden seeds do not need bottom heat, though many 
sprout quicker if warmed from below : always when 
bottom heat is used the seedlings should be removed to 
cooler places very soon or they will become "leggy" ; 
i. e., tall, spindling, and weak. Good ventilation by day 
will help make them "stocky" and strong. 




FIG. 74— STRAW MAT FOR COVERING HOTBEDS AND COLD FRAMES 

86 



BOTTOM HKAT 87 

The expression "ten degrees of bottom heat" means 
that the bed should be that many degrees warmer than 
the air just above the bed or in the propagating house. 
Usually, however, the temperature of the l)ed is indicated, 
as 60, 70, or some other degree. 

133. Natural bottom heat obtained from the sun during 
the day is of importance at all times, but is scarcely con- 
sidered in greenhouse winter work, except as something 
to offset heat from the pipes in the propagating house. 
In hotbed, cold frame and other structures not usually 




FIG. 75— MAKING A CONCRETE HOTBE:) 

The trenches being dug were later filled with concrete without "forms." 
A.'ter the concrete had "set" the earth was taken out, partly by horse scoop, 
partly by hand. 

heated artificially it is of great importance, especiallv in 
spring. During the day the sun penetrates the surface 
layer of soil, which becomes warm. During the night 
this heat is given ofT slowly and checked by mats (Fig. 
74) and shutters (Fig. 48), so the fullest use may be made 
of it. The depth to which the soil may thus be warmed 
depends upon the intensity of the light, the color and 
other characters of the soil; for instance, dark , soils 
absorb more rapidly than light ones. 

134. Application of bottom heat may be obtained in 
any of the following ways : 

1. Hotbeds (Fig. 80) in which manure, tan bark. 



88 



I'LANT PROl'ACATION 



brewers' grains, spent hops, or other fermenting material 
is used, as a source of heat. Fresh horse manure is the 
most popular of such materials. 

2. By horizontal brick or tile flues which carry the 
gases of fires beneath the benches of a greenhouse or of 
a hotbed. This method of warming greenhouses is prac- 
tically obsolete, but for hotbeds, especially for propagat- 




FIG. 76— "SWEAT BOX" FOR PROPAGATING 

High temperature and humidity secured by closing top and lowering burlap 
curtains below. 



ing sweet potato plants (Fig. 72), it is very popular in 
Delaware, Maryland and more southern states. 

3. Hot water and steam in iron pipes (Fig. 77) are by 
far the most popular commercial methods of heating be- 
cause of their read}^ adaptability to any sized house. 

4. Confining air and heat above the cutting bed by 
means of glass sash over hotbed-like frames on the 



UUl lUM llliAT 



8y 




FIG. 



77— PIPE-WARMED HOTBED 

c, water 



plant support; b, hot-water pipes 
tanks. 



greenhouse l)enches. (Fig. 76.) When necessary to in- 
lensifv the heat the space beneath the bench is walled 
in tightly to confine the heat. In a small way bell 
glasses and similar utensils (Fig. 32) are placed over 
seeds, seedlings or cuttings on the benches or merely over 

a soup plate or a sau- 
cer filled with sand 
which covers the cut- 
tings. Sun heat alone 
is often used in such 
cases. 

5. Propagating ovens 
(Figs. 36, 37) are some- 
times used for small 
lots of seeds or cut- 
tings, as in schools 
where teaching the 
principles of plant cul- 
ture rather than com- 
mercial work is the aim, where the room temperature 
falls low during the night and where there are no green- 
house facilities. 

They are generally heated by lamps and are usually more or less 
insulated boxes with only three to five cubic feet content. Tn the 
bottom is a chamber for a kerosene lamp reached by a door for fill- 
ing and other attention. Above the lamp is a 
galvanized iron water tray and above this a 
perforated floor. Next above is the sand tray 
in which the cuttings are placed for propaga- 
tion. The cover is of glass. By means of the 
lamp the water is made to give off vapor which 
keeps sand and air above it warin and moist. 
Regulation of the size of the flaine and of the 
ventilators will control both temperature and 
humidity in the propagating chamber. 

135. Bottom and air heat effects. 
All growth in plants results from 
a stimulus of some kind. Various agents may 
bring it about ; for instance, ether vapor. So far, 
however, as the commercial plant propagator is con- 




FIG. 7S— 

SINGLE LIGHT 
MELON FRAME 



90 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



cerned heat is the only important one. For though all 
these agents produce the same effect (arousing the ac- 
tivity of enzymes or ferments, chemically or physically, 
to change and make available the stored plant food, 
especially that near the l^uds), heat is the most active, 

most normal, and most 
easily and economically 
applied. Therefore, the 
plant grower, while in- 
terested in the abnor- 
mal agents, applies 
heat under proper con- 
trol to secure a healthy 
growth where he 
knows it is needed first 
of all. 

Cuttings after being set in the propagating bed always 
begin to grow at the part most favorably placed as to 
temperature, lliat is, if a stem cutting be placed so its 
upper end is in an air temperature appreciably higher 
than that of the soil, growth will begin in the upper buds. 
With no cuttings is this so apparent as with cuttings of 
immature wood, grown in a greenhouse. When bottom 
heat is lacking and the air warmed, even only by sun 
heat, the buds expand into new stems and leaves ; but 
few or usually no roots are produced. Such conditions 




riG. 79— ONE "LIGHT" FORCING FRAME 
The sash lifts for ventilation 




FIG. 80— HOTBED "KNOCKED DOWN" TO SHOW CONSTRUCTION 



nirnoM iiiiAx 



I" 




FIG. 81 

GLASS COVERED CUT- 
TING FRAME. 



must be avoided, because the reverse are necessary to r( cjt 
making, w^hich should always, except perhaps with tuber 
and root cuttings, precede grt)wth of stem and leaf. 

The philosophy of this is apparent ; for when growth 
starts, the foods stored in the plant are moved rapidly to 
the part that has become active. 
Hence if the part be abo\'e ground 
all the food goes there; in fact, is 
removed from the part that should 
form roots. Result, breakdown and 
death. Conversely, if the air be 
cool and the soil sufiliciently warm 
from start to finish the cuttings soon 

develop calluses and roots (Fig. 91) upon which top 
growth normally depends. Hence such conditions should 
be maintained, because if cuttings are properly planted 
growth will occur only below ground, where it should 
be. When once the roots have begun to grow below 

ground plant food ma- 
terials can 1)6 taken u]) 
b}' the roots and trans- 
ferred to the parts abo\'e 
ground. As soon as 
green matter has been 
developed by the ex- 
panding Inids (already 
present in green wood 
and leaf cuttings) it can 
work over the crude 
food in the presence of 
sunlight and the fuM 
functions of plant 
growth will have started 
properly above and be- 
low ground. 

Mature wood cuttings 
FIG. f<2-swEET POTATOES AND VINE ^"^u stand greater hard- 




92 



PLANT l'K(n'A(JA'JION 



ships in propagating before making roots than can imma- 
ture wood cuttings, because tiiey contain considerable 
stored food, but even they should not be started in warm 
air and cool soil. With green wood cuttings, root growth 
must always precede leaf and stem growth or death 
will almost always result. 




FIG. 83— TWO STYLES OF COLD FRAMES 

1. Concrete walls around beds covered with sash on wooden framework. 2. 
Board frames on ground for temporary use. 

136. Hotbed making. In making a hotbed a pit one 
to two feet deep, six feet wide and any desired length 
(preferably a multiple of three feet, because standard 
hotbed sashes are 3 x 6 feet) is excavated and filled with 



BOTTOM IIKAT 



93 




the freshest possible horse manure that has not been ex- 
posed to the weather. Should the manure be dry in 
spots, sufficient water must be added to moisten it, the 
whole pile worked over at least twice (three times pre- 
ferred), so the manure may assume a somewhat dry, oily 
appearance. Then it should be piled. A layer of less 
than six inches in the bed will usually give poor results; 
12 to 18 inches are the usual depths. Then a layer of 
say four inches of 
good friable soil is 
placed on the manure, 
and lastly a surface 
ir:h or so of fibrous 
comi)ost, which be- 
cause of its content of 
thoroughly rotted ma- 
nure, grass roots, etc., 
will bake very little af- 
ter watering. Sifted 
loam (.r compost ^^G. 84-shifting plants 

'1i iilrl 1 f» n -orl ffir fliA ^^^ ''*" ^^ earth comes out freely when ttie 
snoUKl DC Useci lOr ine p^t rim is knocked downward as shown. 

seed bed. After the 

sash are put on the frames the temperature 
should be allowed to rise very high. After this subsides 
somewhat seeds may be sown. During the violent heat- 
ing period a little ventilation should be given. Banking 
around the outside aids in retaining heat. 

Hotl)e(ls in the South, and to some extent also in the 
North, are often made wholly above ground ; i. e., without 
any pit. The quantity of manure needs to be greater 
for a given locality than when a pit is used because of 
loss of heat at the sides of the pile. Depth of pit, manure 
and whether a pit shall or shall not be used de])end upon 
the climate and the season when the bed is made. 

137. Fire-fanging is due to various fungi and bacteria 
working in rather dry manure, which they injure by 
"burning up" the vegetable matter. To prevent this 



94 



PLANT TROPAGATION 



trouble, the manure should be decidedly moist if not wet 
and packed well. Should slight injury occur the pile 
should be shaken out well, wetted and re-stacked. 




FIG. 85— PROPAGATING SHEDS IN FLORIDA NURSERY 

Plants started in greenhouses or other beds are moved to the sheds when well 

rooted. 



CHAI'TI'-R \ III 

CUTTAGE 

138. Cuttage is propaj^alion by plant parts — roots, 
rlii/.onies, tul)ers, stems or leaves — cut in pieces with or 
without buds. These pieces take root and asexually 
produce new plants of the same variety as the parent 
plant. It is in general a cheap, quick and handy way to 
secure large numbers of plants in a given time. But 
while all plants may perhaps be multiplied by cuttage. 
there are some which may be more economically handled 
by other means such as grafting, budding, division, etc. 

For instance, certain varieties of apples, pears, plums and peaches 
readily strike root from cuttings, but the great majority do not; 
therefore, the pome fruits are largely grafted and the stone fruits 
budded, the most satisfactory method being chosen in each case. 
In other words, species differ in the facility with which they may be 
propagated by cutting, grafting or other method. Nothing but ex- 
perience with the actual plant can decide the matter. 

The term "cuttage" is supposed to refer to cuttings of 
the stem, except when qualified by the name of some 
other part used ; as tuber cutting, leaf cutting, root cut- 
ting. By amateurs stem cuttings are often called "slips." 

Cuttage, separation and division blend into one another 
almost imperceptibly, but in cuttage the parts are sev- 
ered from the parent before any roots are formed. 

Propagation by cuttings is a cheap, convenient and 
therefore very popular way to secure new plants. Prob- 
ably all species of plants may be propagated by one or 
more methods of cuttage, using one or another part, but 
with annuals, biennials and many perennials some other 
method (layerage, graftage. seedage, etc.) is often easier 
and chea])er. Even varieties dififer in ability to root. 

For instance, when Clothilde Soupert rose was a novelty a certain 
seedsman bought stuck from which to grow new plants for sale. He 
gave orders to his propagators to secure a certain number of plants, 

95 



96 



PLANT PROPAGATION 




FIG. 86— GARDEN FLAT AND PLANTS GROWN IN IT. 

The advantage claimed for this style of flat is that when the cross pieces 
and the side are removed the plants come out as shown in 2, each with a ball 
of earth. 



if possil)le. These men, acting upon tlieir experience with roses of 
the same class, calculated upon what appeared to them a reasonahle 
percentage of loss and made provision for the required space on that 



till At. I-: 



97 



basis. But the variety proved so much easier to propagate tlian they 
had thought that thousands more i)lants were grown than had been 
ordered. However, as the demand created l)y good advertising was 
greater than had been counted upon, practically all were sold and a 
big profit made. Reverse cases are ])erhaps more common. 

139. Influence of climate on cuttings. — Climate has a 
noticeable effect upon the rooting of cuttings. In parts of 
southern Europe and South America, many plants which 
can hardly be made to strike root elsewhere readily do 
s(i. In some of the Gulf states sweet potato vines may be 



P^.._. 


• t A^Tm. /4'^-f? -%5/ i^MB 











Hir.. 87 .STOCK PI ANTS OF CROTON 
New plants are bccuiecl largely by Chinese layers fro:n these plants. 



cut in pieces a foot long and thrust into the sand with 
certainty that they will grow. In Texas hard wood cut- 
tings of quince and persimmon readily take root. Prob- 
ably in such cases the condition of the soil also has an 
influence, but since similar soil in similar condition in 
northern localities does not produce similar results the 
credit for success must be given to climate. 

140. Summer propagation of hardy plants in Minnesota and other 
western states is ditihcult because of the dry air. S. B. Green suc- 
cessfully propagated hydrangea, spinea, l)arberry, Tartarian honey- 
suckle, and 1 1 varieties of roses l)y stretching burlap over the beds. 
The strips were not laid horizontally but inclined to the south so the 
northern edge was at least one foot above the bench, while the 
southern edge rested directly on the bench. By putting this shade 
on about nine o'clock and leaving it on till about five the cuttings 



L.wT i'K()i'A(;A'ri()\ 




PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF CUTTINGS 



1. Cuttins bench with miscellaneous stock. 2, sansevieria cuttings in foreground, 
I libber plant in middle distance. 3. Dracaena cuttings grown from canes laid 
tn ciitling bench. 4. Rubber plants ready to pot from the bench. 



CUTTACK 



99 



were kept from wilting in the driest weather. It was also found 
that syringing the burlap with water increased the cooling effect, and 
that c(-inii>arali\elv little attention was necessary in watering. 

141. Rooting cuttings in dry climates — Because the relative hu- 
midity in dry climates is low, as in parts of the Pacific Coast states, 
special methods are necessary to make cuttings of certain plants 
(roses, for instance,) take root. Florists have had good success 
with the following method: Hotbeds with 18 inches of fresh manure 
and three inches of sand are covered with glass beneath a frame 
covered w-ith burlap to provide shade and reduce air circulation. 
Only one daily watering is usually necessary. At this time, the 
sashes are raised one at a time to reduce loss of humidity. 




FIG. 89— RED RASPBERRY SUCKER PLANTS 

. Note way new plants develop from roots and the attempts made by the 
plants to produce new ones. 



142. Cuttings require a moist air of proper tempera- 
ttire and sometimes bottom heat (132). This general 
statement ai)plies with special force to cuttings and 
growing parts. Heat and humidity must be carefully 
regulated to suit the species or variety of plant being 
propagated, because the demands of each vary more or 



100 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



less. Many devices, some of them very simple, have 
been adopted for regulating both heat and moisture. 

143. Moisture regulation is accomplished usually by 
propagating frames and boxes of various forms, the com- 
monest being that of a hotbed but smaller. In all the 
principle is that of confining the air. In a small way a 
flower pot or a flat may be inverted over the cuttings, 
(Fig. 32) or a pane of glass (Fig. 32) or a bell jar placed 
above them. By tilting these more or less the humidity 




FIG. 90— A1ETH0D OF POTTING 

1. Right hand partially filling soil into pot, left hand seizing rooted cutting. 
2. Ready to plant. 3. Filling pot. 4. Finishing. 



and the circulation of air may be easily regulated. What- 
ever is used should admit light in varying degree. 

144. Callus, the new formation of cells upon an injured 
surface ; for instance, at the lower end of a stem cutting, 
or the cut surface of a layer or of a root graft. 

145. Stock plants are grown in greenhouses and 
nurseries merely to supply cuttings, cions, layers, or buds 
for propagation. 

146. "Blind eyes" are shoots which do not produce 
flowers. They are common on roses and some other 



CUTTAGE 10 I 



plants grown under glass. Many propagators think the}' 
will produce llowcrlcss plants. 

147. Blind vs. flowering wood. — L. C. Corbett tested this I)elief 
that "bUnd wood," is inferior to "flower wood" in the propagation of 
roses Each year for live years wood was selected respectively from 
these two classes of shoots to test the cumulative effect of prop- 
agation through a series of years. As to rootmg ability and growth, 
little difference was noticed. During the lirst year the Howoring 
wood plants produce ir.d per cent more flowers than plants prop- 
agated from l)lind wood, but during the next two years the per- 
centage decreased instead of increased. The percentage of flowers 
on the latter also decreased, l)Ut not in so great propi^rtion. As a 
result of these experiments the author concludes that where bloom 
rather than stock plants is desired, the flowering wood is decidedly 
the better, but the cumulative effect of projiagating roses from one 
or the other year after year is not marked. 

148. Suckers are leafy shoots produced from adven- 
titious buds on the underground parts of plants. 

The term is sometimes applied (1) to aerial roots or 
holdfasts of orchids and other epiphytal plants and (2) 
to shoots which sprout from the trunk. Properly, how- 
ever, these last are water sprouts (149). 'Suckers often 
follow injuries by bugs, tools, etc., to the roots, also 
from weakness or decrepitude in the tree head, or be- 
cause of excess of plant food at the point whence they 
arise. All plants that produce them may be easily prop- 
agated by cuttings of the producing parts. 

For instance, certain kinds of plum and cherry stocks must be 
carefully handled to prevent sucker formation ; but for plant prop- 
agation the stools of blackberries, red raspberries, etc., are often 
severely root pruned by thrusting a sharp spade full depth of the 
blade into the soil around the plant so as to cut the roots six or 
eight inches from the stool and again farther out. Every cut piece 
wnll produce a plant. Instead of using a spade the stools are often 
removed and the ground deeplv cut with a disk harrow run in two 
directions at right angles across the field. See Root Cuttings (162). 

149. Water sprouts are shoots or limbs of one season's 
growth produced from latent or adventitious buds on 
trunks and branches of well-established trees, mainly 
near where limbs have been removed. See Suckers 
(148). 



lUJ 



I'LANT PROPAGATION 



Loth water sprouts and suckers commonly follow over- 
pi uning. They show an undesirable loss of balance 
between root system and top. In cold climates water 
sprouts often winterkill. Therefore, they are best re- 
moved promptly and with clean cuts. Where practical, 
careful root pruning will tend to overcome this condition. 
150. Origin of roots in cuttings, — In making stem cut- 
tmgs the usual practice is to "cut to a node" ; i. e., stems 
are cut just below buds. The reason for this is that with 

most plants a larger pro- 
portion of cuttings will 
"strike root" than if the 
cuts are made farther 
away from the nodes. 
True buds of themselves, 
however, exercise-no in- 
fluence in the production 
of roots, for if buried in 
the earth or other me- 
dium, they do not grow. 
The reason roots form 
best near the nodes is 
believed to be that stem 
tissues at such points are 
richer in plant food stored 
there to assist the 
bud should it start 
growth. \\'hile many 
stems made into cuttings 
will root at any point, it is a rule that roots arise most 
freely at or very near the bases of the cuttings, whether 
"cut to a node" or not. 

Root origin is always in adventitious buds, usually 
formed beneath the bark or the callus, but always in the 
primarv (meristematic) tissue, the center of the cambium 
laver. This tissue is composed of undififerentiated cells. 
Adventitious buds may develop in any part of a plant 




FIG. 91— FORMATION 



Grape cuttings showing callus, 
showing roots. 



OF ROOTS 

2. Others 



( I "i I Ach: 



103 



where there is an epidermis with primar}^ tissue beneath. 
The change which leads to the formation of adventitious 
buds always follows an unusual condition of plant growth 




FIG. 92— ODD WAYS OF STARTING CUTTINGS 

1. Short geranium cutting rooted. 2. Cactus cutting rooted. Both cuttings 
fastened to toothpicks. 

such as hisufficient assimilation of elaborated food by the 
plant or an injury of some kind. 

Thus adventitious buds may be called emergency buds, 
because they seek to preserve the pla'Tt when endangered. 
This orovision of nature has given rise to manv of the 



104 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



asexual methods of plant propagation (cuttings, layers, 
etc.). Buds formed at the bases of stem cuttings readily 
push through the callus, but often roots push through 
the epidermis, even high above this point. 

151. Buds are of two general kinds, true or normal and 
adventitious. A true bud, sometimes called a "brood 
bod}^" is a growing point in normal position on a stem. 
It may develop into leaf, flower branch, cluster of leaves, 
or of fiowers, or of both leaves and flowers. 

152. Adventitious buds are developed at unexpected 
points from certain cells in the cambium layer in roots, 
stems, or leaves. Under favorable conditions anv of these 




i 10. 'Jo—lWCKl'SG lOR SHIP.MEM 
1. Mail order method. 2. Express package. 



CUTTAGE 



105 



cells may develop buds which may develop into either 
roots or sprouts, according- to their position or the neces- 
sity of the case. Familiar examples on roots are red 
raspberry and blackberry ; (mi stems, pome and stone 
fruits ; on leaves, bryophyllum. 

153. Leaf buds are undeveloped branches bearing- rudi- 
mentary leaves specially modified for protection. They 
develop into branches, which under faxorablc conditions 




FIG. 94— TILE BOTTOMED GREENHOUSE BENCH 

This is one of the best styles of bench bottom — because so well drained and so 

lasting. 



of growth, mature other buds in the axils of the leaves 
and usually one or more at the extremities. Flower buds 
develop one flower or several, with or without leaves. 
As to position, l)uds are lateral, axillary, etc. 

154. Latent buds are normal buds in normal positions 
but dormant beyond the usual time (a month, a year or 
more). They are called into growth by some peculiar 
stimulus. Many of the buds on the lower third or more 
of the annual growth of trees and shrubs become latent 
during the second year but start growing if the upper 



loG I'LAiXT rROl'AGATlON 

part is cut off. Lateral buds are situated on the sides of 
branches, usually in the axils of the leaves. A terminal 
hud is situated at the extremity of a branch or stem. 
Usually only one is in this position, but sometimes (lilac) 
there are two or even more. Axillary buds are produced 
in the axils of leaves. 

155, Roots on stem cuttings form on the end normally 
nearest the root of the parent plant. Stems appear on 
the other end. Botanists call this phenomenon polarity. 
With root cuttings the plan holds good ; the end nor- 
mally nearest the top of the plant will produce a stem, 
and that farthest away, roots. Some species may be com- 
pelled to take root when reversed but growth is puny 
and of short life. If horse-radish cuttings are inverted, 
they will start late, roots from the "root" end and stems 
from the "stem" end, but the resulting roots will be 
small, irregular and unsalable. Hence horse-radish 
growers generally cut the upper ends of their cuttings 
square across, and the lower ends oblique so the planters 
may see which end should be placed uppermost. 

156. Shipping cuttings and plants. Plants require fresh 
air just as animals do. If seeds, bulbs and plants are 
packed moist in air-tight boxes, they may be asphyxiated 
or may perish through putrefaction. Growing plants will 
live a considerable time without light if they can get 
fresh air and if light and air are good they will stand a 
rather wide range of temperature. The best method to 
pack many plants is to knock them out of their pots and 
roll the earth l)alls in oiled paper, tied above and below. 
They may then be packed tightly and upright with a lit- 
tle wet moss between the balls in wooden boxes deep 
enough to protect the tops. Across the tops of the balls 
between the rows, strips of batten should be placed and 
nailed through the sides of the boxes. Perforated zinc on 
top of the l)Oxes held down by battens may be placed 
for long-distance shipments. Finally the boxes should 
be labeled "Living plants. Keep cool. This side up." 



CUTTAC.K 



107 



If to Ijc sent by sea, llie further caution is necessary 
"Keep away from salt water." Plants so packed may be 
sent half around the world. On arrival, especially if dr}', 
they should be soaked, root and top, for a day or two 
before being planted. If woody plants are badly dried 
they may be buried in moist earth for a week to a month 
with fair prospects of revixing'. 

157, Media used for rooting cuttings have great in- 
fluence upon the regulation of both moisture and tem- 
perature, especially the former. They should be porous so 
excess water will readily drain 
away ; second, be retentive of cap- 
illary water so there will always be 
moisture enough to supply the cut- 
tings with all they need while 
callusing and making roots; third, 
they must not bake or crust after 
watering. For outdoor work a 
well-drained light, sandy loam of 
moderate richness usually gives 
best results ; heavy soil and muck 
poorest. Ft)r indoor use, sphag- 
num moss, cocoantit fiber and 
specially prepared soils are all used 
to some extent, but the great ma- 
terial is river or builders' sand. The grade used should be 
sharp, clean and as free as possible from organic matter. 
If the greater portion will pass through a sieve of eight 
meshes to the inch, l)Ut not through one of say 25, the 
range will be about right. Some propagators prefer 
sand near the coarse limit of this range, some near the 
fine limit. To prevent damping-ofT (78) and other 
troubles the sand shcnild either be sterilized (80) or 
freshly dug from a deep pit so as to be as free as possi1)le 
from organic matter. 

-Whatever material is used the container must be well 
drained. When cutting benches have bottoms of small 




FIG. 95— DOUBLE POT OF 
CUTTINGS 




105 PLANT PROPAGATION 

tile (Fig-. 94), enough drainage is provided between the 
tiles ; but with wooden benches it is often necessary to 
bore holes in the boards and to protect these with pieces 
of flower pot or to stuff sphagnum moss loosely into 
them and the larger cracks between the boards. Other- 
wise too much sand will wash down and be lost and the 
cuttings may suffer. 

For best results, water in media for rooting cuttings, as 

in soil for crops, should be in the form of thin films 

around soil or sand particles. The finer the particles the 

larger the quantity of water that may be 

held and usually the harder will the soil 

pack — lx)th undesirable in a cutting bed. 

The familiar example to illustrate the for- 

FiG 96— "^^^ point is of a cube. This has six sides, 

,rc,v,T., .-OT. but cut in half the bulk has not been in- 

VENTILATED i , , r i i 

CUTTING POT creased though two new surfaces have been 
added and the possible film area thus in- 
creased one-third. Repeated sub-division thus increases 
the surface area without increasing the bulk. Hence the 
high water-holding capacity of fine sand and soil. 

158. Double pots are often used for small lots of cut- 
tings because of their convenience (Fig. 95). In a 
large pot is placed a liberal handful of "crocks" (91), 
clinkers or other drainage material. Sand is added to 
a depth sufficient to admit a small pot set upon it so the 
rims of both pots are on a level. The drainage hole of 
the smaller pot is plugged so no water can escape, except 
by seepage through the sides or by evaporation. After 
adjusting the smaller, sand is placed between the two 
pots, the smaller filled with water and cuttings stuck in 
the sand for rooting. The water in the little reservoir 
seeps out and keeps the sand moist but never too wet for 
the cuttings. Scarcely more attention is needed than to 
kee]i the little pot full of water. 

159. Shading, especially of newly made greenwood and 
leaf cuttings, is essential to success because the moisture 



CUTTAtlE ICXJ 

in the cuttings themselves must not be greatly de- 
pleted. This would l)e the case were all the leaf surface 
allowed to remain or that retained exposed to free cir- 
culation of air, moist though that of the propagating 
house may be. The usual plan is to cover cuttings 
or frames containing them with newspaper (Fig. 18). 
Factory cotton and cheesecloth are also used more or 
less (Fig. 15). These materials are all placed where the 
sun strikes the beds. 

160. Screens for seedlings are perhaps best made by a picket 
machine which binds builders' lath with woven strands of wire. 
These screens are quicker made, cheaper, more flexible, durable 
and easier handled than those nailed toeether. 



no 



n.AN'l' PROPAGATION 




IIG. yV-NUKSHKY BEDS 

t. Hand forking the soil is generally necessary because the beds are narrow. 
2. Right and wrong method of weeding. The man on the right has his foot 
in the bed. 



CHAPTER IX 



CLASSES OF CUTTINGS 

161. Plant parts to use. — Cuttings may Ije made from 
any plant part that has a primary tissue (meristem). 

They may l)e divided into four groups, dependent upon 
the parts used: 1, Roots; 2, root-stocks and tubers; 3, 
stems ; 4, leaves. As in all other kinds of asexual propa- 
gation, cuttings reproduce the same variety as the parent 
plants from which taken, bud variations or "sports" 
exceipted. 

162. Root cuttings may be made from true roots of any 
plant species which naturally produce suckers (osage, 
orange, poplar, willow. 
red raspberry, trumpet 
creeper, dracaena, horse- 
radish, plumbago, bou- 
\ardia). The roots are 
cut in pieces usually 
three inches long, either 
stored in moist moss or 
sawdust or placed di- 
rectly in the propagating 
bed. With most cool 
climate plants the rooting is done out of doors without 
artificial heat; with warm climate subjects bottom heat 
in greenhouse or hotbed is required. Plants in the former 
group are often handled with bottom heat to get best 
results or shorten time. 

Blackberries and red raspberries, especially when stock is 
scarce, are often increased commercially by root cuttings (Fig 98). 
Roots one-fourth inch or even smaller in diameter are dug in 
fall, cut in pieces one to three inches long, packed in green saw- 
dust or moist sand, stored in a cold ])ut frost proof cellar till 
spring and the callused ones then planted like peas, not closer than 
an inch asunder in furrows wide enough apart for horse cultiva- 
tion. They make salable plants by fall. When an extra demand 

111 




FIG. 98— BLACKBERRY PLANTS 
A, root-cutting plant; B, sucker plant. 




112 PLANT PROPAGATION 

is expected the cuttings are sometimes started in heated propa- 
gating beds in fall so plants may be ready for sale in spring. 
In the South they are often made in spring and planted in the open. 

Pear, apple, cherry and peach root cuttings may l)e 
grown in frames with bottom heat, but this inethod has 
never been very popular with nurserymen because graft- 
age (192) is considered more economical. 

Root cuttings are open to the objection that they do 
not always transmit variegation 
though they do perpetuate the va- 
riety otherwise. It must also be re- 
membered that the root will propa- 
gate its variety ; that is, if roots of 
a grafted plant be selected, those 

FIG. 99-CUTTING ^^^^" ^'"^"^ ^^^^^^^ ^hc UuioU will 

READY FOR BURYING produce "scedlmg-stock plants, 
while those above that point will 
grow plants of the cion A^ariety. 

163. A sport or bud variation is a plant or plant part, 
as a twig, which unexpectedly shows a character differ- 
ent from that of the variety or species or the balance of 
the plant. Usually this character cannot be reproduced 
by seed but is almost always propagated asexually. Even 
then it is still called a sport. The term is not commonly 
applied to monstrosities or deformities, but to more or 
less attractive and apparently normal characters, as 
doubling of flowers on single-flowered plants, variega- 
tion and other changes of the color on green plants, etc. 
Bud variations may be the starting point of new varieties 
or of reversions to earlier forms. 

1C4. Tubers and tuber cuttings, because of their food 
content, can live long after growth starts liefore the new 
l)lants may be able to take food from the soil. In potato 
plant formation the eye sends a shoot through the soil to air 
and light. Then roots begin to form near the base of the 
shoot. These roots secure food though the plantlet con- 
tinues to draw upon the food stored in the tuber. lu 



CLASSI':.S OF ( TTTINC^ 



n.^ 



liiiic special shoots cmcrs^c from the steins, extend short 
distances and hitcr thicken to form tnl)ers. For com- 
mercial planting;, Irish potato tubers are ustially cut in 
pieces, each containing- at least one eye or bud. If cut 
ill rough an eye each half eye may produce a shoot and be 
somewhat earlier than the other eyes in the same piece. 
Cutting-s are often slig-htly dried and allowed to sprout 
in the lig-ht. which produces short purple shoots (Fig-. 73) 




FIG. 100— TRANSPLANTING MACHINE IN OPERATION 

The boys place plants alternately between a pair of jaws which open at 
resulaled intervals, close and set the plants in the soil. Each plant may be 
watered at ihe same time. 

that develop more rapidly than do unsprouted eyes. 
They apparently do not rob the tubers of plant food as do 
the white shoots formed in the dark. 

Irish potato tuber cutting's, each piece including at 
least one "eye," are dropped in the ground and allowed 
to take their course. Much discussion has arisen as to the 
proper size of piece. Fxperiment in many states and 
under numerous soil and other cultural conditions seems 
to favor moderate-sized tubers and cuttings rather than 
over-sized ones and single eve pieces. 



114 



I'LAN'l' J'KOI'AC.A'JIOX 



Since llie sweet pcjlalo is a true root and therefore 
without buds it produces sprouts from adventitious buds 
most abundantly, as a rule, at the stem end. The shoots 
take root as do those of Irish potato, but roots may also 
develop from the potato itself. The sprouts are "slipped" 
off with roots attached and planted in rows by hand or 
with transplanting machines (Fig. 100). Should they not 
have roots at the time of planting, they soon overcome 
this apparent handicap in favorable soil. Sweet potato 
propagating beds are either mildly warmed manure hotbeds 
or heated by flues (Fig. 72) in permanent beds. 

Stem cuttings of certain tuber-bear- 
ing plants (potato) do not develop new 
plants, but tubers either at the bases 
of cuttings or in the axils of leaves 
above ground. New plants will devel- 
op from these tubers. Leaf cuttings 
of some kinds also do this. 

165. Rhizome cuttings, made from 
underground stems (achillea, canna, 
rhubarb), are treated like tuber cut- 
tings. Two l)ad weeds accidentally 
propagated in this way are cjuack 
grass and perennial morning glory 
(liindweed), every joint of which is 
capable of producing a new plant. 

166. Stem cuttings are of three 
kinds: 1, dormant, ripe, mature or 
hardwood ; 2, green, immature, soft 
wood or succulent ; and 3, an inter- 
mediate class, semi-hardwood. 

167. Styles of mature cuttings. Ma- 
FiG. 101— CARNATION turc wood cuttiugs may be made of any 

length, but 6 to 10 inches is the usual 

^' al^^Root^d''^" range for those with more than one 

bud. With perhaps the majority of 

species so propagated, two nodes and one internode 




CLASSICS Ol'" ( I 11 IXC. " 



115 



are preferred, tlioiigli willi sliort-jointed plants 
such as Delaware !j;rape, currant and plum, 
several nodes may be used, in which case all but 
the top bud or buds — those above or at the surface of the 
soil — are cut or rubbed off to prevent the fcjrmation of 
shoots from below ground. Satisfactory growth of cut- 
tings does not depend on number of buds; single buds 
in many species give as good results as when several are 
used. In the cutting bed all long mature wood cuttings 
are set vertically w^ith a bud or two above the surface. 
168. Single eye mature wood cuttings are often made 




FIG. 102— ODD WAYS OF STARTING PLANTS FROM CUTTINGS 

1. Sectional leaf cutting of begonia. 2. "Whole leaf" cutting of begonia. 
3. Cactus cutting fastened to toothpick to be kept steady in cutting bench. 



when stock is scarce or costly in two popular ways. In 
the first case the wood is cut half way between 
nodes, the cuttings laid flat with eyes upward in the cut- 
ting bed and covered with an inch or so of soil. In the 
other style cuts are made, one a little above the bud and 
the other a couple of inches below. These cuttings are 
thrust vertically in the bed as far down as the buds. In 
each case the cuttings are generally started with bottom 
heat under glass about three months before work could be 
done out of doors. From the start the sand must be kept 
moist. Shadinir is often necessarv. \\hen the leaves ex- 



ii6 



IM.AiX'l' PROPAGATION 



panel, sprinkling' ninst be frequent to prevent wilting. 
In four to six weeks the plants may be potted. Species, 
variety, season and locality, all influence results. 

169. Mature wood cuttings may be made at any time. 
With plants growing in the open the great majority are 
made for planting in spring. Many of these are cut 
only a short time before being planted ; many more are 
cut in fall and stored over winter in bundles buried in a 
well-drained sandy knoll, or stored 
until spring under cover in moist 
soil, sand, sawdust or moss. 

The chief advantages of the last- 
named plan are that the bases callus 
over before planting time and pos- 
sible v/inter injury is avoided. Oc- 
casionally (currant, gooseberry) 
cuttings are made as soon as the 
wood is mature and the leaves begin 
to fall. They are then callused and fall 
planted, thus gaining a good deal of 
time. Winter mulching of fall-set 
cutting beds is essential to success, 
because heaving and settling of soil 
under alternate freezing and thaw- 
ing break the tender roots. 

With short-jointed plants, little 
care is taken to cut the lower end 
FIG. 103— to a l)ud, but with long-jointed ones 

GOOSEBERRY CUTTINGS bcSt rCSUltS follow CUttiug jUSt 1)6- 

low nodes. It has also l)een noticed 
that grape cuttings with more than two buds 
give better root systems than do those with two buds or 
only one, since roots are developed at each buried node. 
Only the top bud is left to produce a stem, the others 
being rubbed ofif. Long, mature wood cuttings are 
usually set obliquely in the cutting bed so as not to be 
too deeply covered. Another advantage of this is that 




CI.ASSl'.S OK Cri'liNGS 



I I 



in poorK- drained soil and in cold, wet seasons rools will 
form hcUcr than if cullini;s arc set vertically. Ilcncc 
gra])e cuttings with two buried nodes usually make better 
plants than those with only one bud buried. 




FIG. 1U4— STUDENTS IN THE rENNSYLV.^Nl.A STATE COLLEGE GREENHOUSE 

1. Each student has his own bench space where he does "head house" work. 
2. In the forcing house each one has his own beds to tend. The boys arc 
working on radishes. 



i8 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



170. Evergreen mature wood cuttings, esi)ecially of cone-bearing 
plants (arbor vitie, juniper and retinospora) are fall planted 
under cover in sand either in a cool greenhouse or some other 
cover. Usually they take root slowly, sometimes a full year (yew^, 
juniper), but continue green if properly shaded and watered. After 
rooting they may remain in the flats till the following season for 
out-of-door planting or may be potted. The cuttings, usually four 
or five inches long, are always made of well-ripened wood some- 
times two, three or even four years old. The needles or leaves are 
cut from the lower two-thirds of the stem with a sharp knife. They 
should never be pulled or rubbed off. Remaining leaves are not 
covered with soil. Probably all cone-bearing trees may be prop- 
agated by cuttings. It is not, however, profitable to grow pine this 
way; seed is cheaper. Spruce cuttings are very slow to root (12 
to 18 months) so fine varieties are generally grafted. 




FIG. 105— CALLUSING BED FOR CUTTINGS AND ROOT GRAFTS 
In this the bundles of grafts and cuttings are placed in fall or winter for spring 

planting. 

171. Rose cuttings of dormant wood are largely used both out 
of doors and under glass. When to be grown out of doors the 
cuttings are made about six inches long from mature wood in the 
fall before severe freezing weather comes. Bundles are stored in 
sand over winter and planted in spring in V-shaped trenches with 
only one bud showing. Rich soil produces strong plants in one sea- 
son. When grown under glass the cuttings are made in November 
or December and planted in sand in cold frames or cool greenhouses. 
I'y b>bruary or March they may be potted. W hen warm weather 
arrives they are planted in rich soil. 

172. Ringing roses to facilitate cuttings propagation was done 
experimentally by Greiner, a French investigator, who found that 
such cuttings strike root much more readily than do ordinary ones. 
The stems of the parent plants were ringed in July or August. By 
November the wounds had callused. The method is recommended 
for varieties difficult to propagate by ordinary cuttings. Several 
rings made at proper distances apart to get right-sized cuttings may 
1)6 made on the same branch. 

173. Cuttings from grafted grapes. — F. Baco, a French investiga- 
tor, has proved that with certain varieties of grapes used as cions, 



CLASSICS Ol'' (I I I I .\(,S 



119 



i^rafting not only causes spccilic variations l)Ut tliat these varia- 
tions maj' he i)eri)etuate(l hy cuttings. V^ariations in the vegetative 
liarts also seem to he accompanied hy variations in the root system. 

174. Browning of grape cuttings 'is due to hacteria and is con- 
sidered a disease, hut P. \'iala and L. Ravaz, French investigators, 
say it is without pathoU^gical effect. Externally the cuttings re- 
tain their normal color and when grafted readily make unions. 
They root well and produce vigorous hranches. The hacteria are 
never found in the new growth no matter how ahundant in the 
cuttings, nor do thev descend into the stock in case of grafting. 

175. Dwarf plants from cuttings.— In France cuttings' taken from 
the tips of hranches of plants which have reached full development 
but have not produced flowers, will take root under proper condi- 
tions and produce flowers without much further growth. If the 




FIG. 106— PLAN OF CALLUSING BED 
Notice the position of the bundles. They form calluses best when set upright. 



plants to he dwarfed produce hoth terminal and axillary flowers, 
the cuttings should he taken from the least-developed flower 
liranches. The cuttings should be made about an inch under a 
node in each case. Chrysanthemums, asters, roses, and several 
greenhouse plants have been thus dwarfed. 

176. Callus pits (Fig. 106) are excavations in which 
ciitting-s are buried for a few weeks or months prior to 
planting. They must be made on well-drained knolls 
fully exposed to the sun so the greatest possible use may 



120 



rLAKT PROPAGATION 



be made of natural l)()ttom heat. For short periods in 
fall and spring, bundles of cuttings are buried upright 
with their butt ends upward to hasten callusing. Depth 
will be governed by length of cuttings and season ; a 
covering of two to six inches of sand or friable soil is 
enough. Because the upper ends of cuttings are placed 
downward the buds are kept cooler than the butt ends 




FIG. 107— STAND FOR MAKING GRAFT AND CUTTING BUNDLES 

The tier around each stem shows where the graft has been made. When 
the rack is full the loose raffia is brought up and tied around the bundle. 

and, therefore, do not sprout even under fairly favorable 
conditions for starting growth. 

Fall-callused cuttings may be dug up and stored in 
cellars over winter. Fresh hardwood sawdust from green 
wood is considered the best material in which to store 
mature wood cuttings because it has just the right 
humidity and retains moisture so well ; watering is rarely 
necessary. The storage room must be kept cold but 
above freezing point. If warm the packing material may 
dry out rapidly. Watering may cause cuttings to heat 



CLASSES OF CUTTINGS 



121 



and sprout long before they could l)e planted in spring", 
ilence there would be loss. 

177. Burying hardwood cuttings bottom end upwards 
from a few days to a few weeks in spring before setting in 
the cutting bed takes advantage of heat in the upper 
laxers of soil. It is of particular advantage with cuttings 
slow tt) take root ; for instance, certain varieties of grapes, 
such as Norton and Delaware. Usually, for convenience 
in handling, the cuttings are tied in bundles (Fig. 107) of 




FIG. 108— ROOT AND BULB STORAGE CELLAR ON A HILLSIDE 

Shelves are used for such plants as cannas, dahlias, gladiolus, placed in 
boxes. Potatoes and other roots are generally stored in piles or bins. 

100 and buried tops downward in a sandy knoll fully ex- 
posed to the sun and only two or three inches deep. 
Often frames are used (Fig. 106). Sometimes cuttings 
are so treated in fall and taken up for cellar storage when 
the ground begins to freeze hard; sometimes they are 
stored without this previous treatment, but buried in 
spring for a few weeks before planting. Hardwood 
cuttings grown out of doors do best when of medium 
(six or eight inches) rather than extreme length l)ecause 
tlic}' arc warmer from the natural bottom heat. 

178. Semi-hardwood cuttings, those of nearly mature 
but still green wood, are used to propagate many hard- 



122 



I'LANT rUOPAGATION 

wood trees, shrubs and vines 
such as rose, lilac, diervilla and 
h_vdrangea. For outdoor work 
they are made usually before 
midsummer; indoors, during- 
late winter. They are cut and 
treated about the same as are 
hardwood cutting's. Frequently 
they are secured in summer after 
the buds have developed and 
the wood is nearly mature. 
Two to five buds are usually 
allowed. The cuttings are. set 
only a couple of inches deep at 
most in frames sheltered 
from sun and wind. Until the 
roots have formed they are 
kept closely covered and are 
often sprinkled to keep the air 
about them humid. 

179. Grape cutting stoiage experi- 
ment — A bundle of grape cuttings 
was placed in dust as soon as made, 
another in sand, a third half in sand, 
and a fourth in the same cellar but 
without protection. In spring when 
planted in the nursery, best results 
were secured with the dust-stored 
cions, next best with those in sand 
and poorest with those left uncovered 
— only about 20 per cent of dust- 
stored cions. 

180. "June-struck cuttings" 
are made from the young shoots 
of various hardy shrubs such as 
])rivet, weigela and hydrangea. 
The two to three-inch cuttings 
partly stripped of their leaves 
.,s .... ,>,„... ^ are started under glass. Thev 

3. Firming tiie plant ^^^^^^^ |^^ ^^j.^ carcfullv shaded 




I-IG. l()9-POTTlNG 
I. Placing the drainage !n tlie 
pot. 2. Placing the rooted cuffing 
and the soil, 
in the pot. 



CLASSICS Ul'- CUTTINGS 



123 



and watered. Rooting is rather slow, a month or more 
often being necessary, (iood plants may thus he grown, 
plants which after wintering in cold frames, may be set in 
the open the following spring. This is a (juick method 
of increasing stock, since more or less cuttings of green 
wood may be made from the plants in the latter part of 
the season and grown indoors during the winter. 

181. Transplanting outdoor grown cuttings should 
occur at the close of the growing season, if there is time 
between the ripening of their wood and the approach of 
winter for them to become established. In such cases 








FIG. 110— FIELD PLANTING OF POTTED DAHLIAS 
1. Italian laborer who sets 4,500 plants in 10 hours. 2. Gang of men he leads. 

winter mulching is necessary. When maturity is late, 
spring planting is advisable. AlwaA's liberal space 
should be given so the i:)lants will have ample food and 
dc\elop symmetricall}'. In some cases, jdants may be 
sold at one year old ; in others, at two years. 

Cutting plants should never be allowed to remain in 
ilic nursery rows more than one growing season. If 
they are there will lie serious loss of roots when dug. 

182. Green wood or soft wood cuttings are more widely 
used than any other kind because they strike root easily, 
are readily rooted under glass and the great majority of 
plants, whether soft or hard wooded, can be propagated 



124 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



by them, in amateur window gardening they are often 
called "slips," because they are the side shoots pulled or 
"slipped" otf the main stems and branches of plants. 
The term is not used in commercial practice since "cut- 
ting" covers the whole idea. Bedding plants — alternan- 
thera, achyranthes, coleus, geranium (Fig. 92), verbena, 
ageratum, and salvia — are so propagated. Green wood 

cuttings are also made of 
dahlia, sweet or Irish 
potato sprouts when 
stock is costly or scarce, 
tubers l)eing started in 
the usual way, the stems 
cut wh^n large enough, 
and placed in a cut- 
ting bed. Soft grow- 
ing tips of many orna- 
mental shrubs and other 
hardwood plants are 
treated thus at the 
right stage of develop- 
ment. 

183. Requisites for green wood cuttings. — The primary 
requisite for success with green wood cuttings is vigorous 
health in the parent plant. Failure is almost certain 
otherwise. Second, when bent the wood must be in such 
condition that it will not crush but snap, leaving a clean 
Ijreak across the stem with nothing but a little epidermis 
connecting the broken part with the stem below (Fig. 
111). This is a lieginner's test; experienced propagators 
recognize the right stage of development at a glance. 

184. Stem parts used for green cuttings. — Propagators 
dispute whether terminal or twig tip cuttings will give 
better results than those lower down. Doubtless cut- 
tings made from main stems and each with a terminal 
bud will give most satisfactory results, l:)Ut this is rather 
1)ecause of their vigor and vitality than because of the 




FIG. Ill— GREEN WOOD FOR CUTTINGS 
a, just right; b, too old. 



CLASSIilS OF eiTTINGS I25 

mere presence of terminal buds. Therefore, when there 
is a jj^ood supply of plant material, propagators usually 
gather t»nly the tips of the shoots (Fig. Ill) for making 
green wood cuttings. Especially is this the case with 
bedding plants that have been growing in the open air. 
Such plants arc either transplanted to the greenhouse or 
cut close to the ground and taken to the work room, 
where terminal growths are made into cuttings and the 
balance thrown away. During the winter stock plants 
(145), as also the first rooted cutting plants made from 
them, have their terminals removed to make new shoots. 
Such i)lants often produce growths of 3 to 10 inches, 
depending largely on species and variety. When such 
growths are cu^ and propagated by midwinter they produce 
bedding plants for outdoor setting by spring. 

185. Making green wood cuttings. — Green wood cut- 
tings are usually two to four inches long and have at 
least one leaf. When several leaves are allowed to remain 
they are cut more or less to reduce transpiration of 
water. Usually the cuts are made just below the nodes, 
but with many subjects this is unnecessary, as soft wood 
cuttings will often strike root at any point covered with 
soil, though most roots come near the base of the cut- 
tings w^hether or not cut near a node. When cuttings 
are very short, they are often tied to toothpicks (Fig. 
92) so they will "stay put" in the propagating bed. 

186. Removal of leaves from green wood cuttings, as 
also from transplanted plants, is not essential to success, 
but is an aid, since it checks transpiration of water and, 
therefore, the danger of "flagging" or wilting. Entire 
stripping of leaves as compared with leaf-surface reduc- 
tion should be avoided, as the assistance of some leaf sur- 
face is helpful to root formation, prox'idcd proper mois- 
ture control is practiced. Various subjects do best under 
various treatments ; for example, coleus should be severely 
Stripped, geranium rather less, alternanthera very little. 



126 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



187. Bedding green wood cuttings. — Since green wood 
cuttings are usually more easily injured than are those 
of mature wood, they are handled more carefully. When 
large quantities of one kind of plant are made the usual 
practice is to drop them as finished into water to pre- 
vent wilting. The propagating bed is prepared by level- 
ing ofif and soaking the sand. Then a narrow board or 
"straight edge" is placed across the bed from aisle to 




FIG. 112— BUDDING NURSERY STOCK 

Notice the tiring position of the budders. This is the usual attitude, though 
some budders work on their knees. 



CLASSES OF Cl'TTlNGS 



127 



back and a wooden knife or a large hibel sharpened on 
one edg-e thrust ()l)liquely in the sand (Fig". 43) to 
tlie recjuired depth l)eside the board at the l)ack of the 
l)ed and (h^awn toward the aisle, thus making a trench 
with a vertical and solid sand wall on one side and an 
i)l)lique rather Iciose one on the other. The board is then 
removed, the cuttings placed at proper intervals against 
the \ertical wall and loose sand from the other side 
jiressed against each with the fingers (Fig. 43). After 
all are in position the bed is drenched with a fine rose 
sprinkler to settle the sand. Newspapers are then spread 




FIG. 113— VARIOUS STYLES OF WATERING POTS 

A, adjustable to any position; b, reaches far; c, common style; d, long- 
necked form without nose; e, common style but with long neck. 

i)\er the cuttings (Fig. 18) to check transpiration and 
e\aporation for a week or two. Strong sunshine is very 
injurious until the cuttings have made roots (Fig. 91), 
because the stems cannot take up water and because the 
leaves give off moisture more or less rapidly. Hence 
the necessity for great care in watering and shading, the 
former to keep both sand and cuttings moist ; the latter 
to keep the air around the leaves humid. 

In a small way green wood cuttings may be started 
in flower pots, saucers or soup plates two-thirds filled 
with sand and then kept brimming full of water. Bottom 
heat, when necessary, may be supplied at the back of the 
kitchen stove. It is not essential to shade these plates 
even when set in full sunlight. 

Another method of placing "soft wood" cuttings in the 
sand bed is to press the edge of a window pane vertically 



i_'8 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



into the sand. Insert the cuttings at proper intervals 
in the neat trench thus prepared and tighten the sand 
al)i)ut them by gently tamping it with a brick or a 
heavy wooden block (Fig. 20). Lay a thin board, of any 
desired width, between the rows of cuttings, on the sand 
with one edge against the preceding row, using the other 
edge as a guide for the glass. Prepare other trenches 
similarly. This insures a neat bed with level surface. 



FIG. 114— BRYOPHYLLUM LEAF 
With young plants in notches of margin. 



188. Tomato cuttings grown experimentally out of doors have 
given more, earlier hut smaller fruits than seedlings ; indoors 
seedlings were decidedly superior. 

189. Keeping soft cuttings alive for long periods. — G. W. 
Oliver has successfully transported herbaceous cuttings from dis- 
tant places as follows: A layer of cuttings is arranged, upper 
leaf surface down, without crowding, on a pane of glass and covered 



CLASSES OF CUTTINGS 



129 



I 



with two or three inches of fine, damp spliagnum moss evenly dis- 
tributed. A second layer of cuttings is placed on the moss with 
the upper surfaces of the leaves facing upward and covered with 
a second pane of glass. The two panes are pressed iirmly and 
made into a package hy tying. By keeping the moss moist and 
giving plenty of light, the cuttings carry well, provided the ma- 
terial is healthy. When the journey is long the cuttings are often 
rooted on arrival. With the moss only slightly dampened, cions 
and bud-sticks of rare plants have kept well long under the same 
treatment. 

190. Sugar cane cuttings have been shipped long distances when 
treated with bordeaux and then packed in damp charcoal. 

191. Leaf cuttings. — ^Leaves of cer- 
tain plant.*^ may l)e made to produce 
new plants. Some of these are planted 
whole, others cut in various ways. In 
certain cases (rex begonia) the new 
growth arises from adventitious buds, 
but in others (various ferns) it coiues 
from true buds which originate in the 
stems. True buds may form on the 
leaves before being cut from the parent 
plant {Bryophylhim calyciniim) or 
afterwards (rex l)egonia) ; normal in 
the former case, adventitious in the 
latter. 

Temperature and moisture condi- 
tions are the same for leaf cuttings as for soft wood cuttings. 
While many plants may be made to reproduce by leaf cut- 
tings (cabbage, lemon) few can be profitably so propagat- 
ed. The process, in some cases, detroys variegation in the 
progeny; e. g., while certain variegated iv}- geraniums 
may be reproduced by soft wood cuttings, they become 
l)lain green when leaf cuttings are used. 

In some cases whole leaves are used as cuttings, in 
others the leaves are cut in pieces. A whole leaf of be- 
gonia is placed flat on the i:)ropagating bench with a short 
piece of its petiole buried in the sand. Cuts are then 
made across the main veins in various places and the leaf 
either pegged down or held in position with a little 




FIG. US- 
ROOTED GLOXINIA 
LEAF 



J 30 PLANT TROPAGATION 

sand. If contact with the sand is good and if moisture 
and temperature conditions are right, little plants will 
be produced at the wounds and also where the veins 
start to branch at the leaf base. When large enough to 
handle conveniently, they may be potted. 

With costly or scarce stock begonia leaves are often 
cut from their bases outward to the margins, thus form- 
ing somewhat fan-shaped or triangular pieces two or 
three inches long and an inch or so wide. In this case 
the stalk is cut ofif close to the leaf blade and the l^asal 
third of the blade also cut from one edge to the other l)y 
a straight slash. This base is then cut into wedge-shaped 
pieces with a rib in the middle of each and a small part 
of the petiole at the lower end. The triangular pieces 
thus formed are placed stem end down in a cutting bench. 
Soon young plants form at the lower points (Fig. 102). 

Bryophyllum leaves, in greenhouse practice, are laid 
flat on the propagating bench. Soon they form little 
plants from most of the notches on their margins (Fig. 
114). In Bermuda and other moist climates, such plants 
will form even Avhen the parent plants or the mature 
leaves are hung on the walls of a room. The same thing 
often occurs in greenhouses. 

AA'hole gloxinia leaves are used, the stems being placed 
in the sand. Unlike the other cases cited, neither stems 
nor leaves usually take root, but a little tuber forms at 
the base of each leaf stem. Such tubers are then dried 
and after a "rest" planted like other tubers. Fig. 115 
shows a leaf cutting that did take root, but did not form 
a tuber. It might have done so if allowed to remain 
longer in the cutting bench. 

Hyacinth leaves placed in a propagating bed soon 
develop bulblets at their bases. Treatment of these 
is the same as for those grown bv other methods. 



CHAPTER X 
GRAFTAGE— GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

192. Graftage, which includes grafting, budding and 
inarching, is the natural or artificial process of making a 
part of one plant unite with and grow upon the roots of 
another. A graft may, therefore, be considered as a 
cutting which unites some of its tissues with those of 
another plant or plant part with or without forming 
either callus or roots, as always happens when cuttings 
are developed into independent plants. 

193, As a horticultural process, graftage is of very 
ancient origin. In his Natural History (Vol. 2 pp. 477 
to 485) Pliny about 2,000 years ago, wrote about it as 
common practice, but its methods have been kept largely 
as trade secrets or mysteries until within the last half 
century or so. Pliny says the art was taught by nature. 
But he goes too far, for he declares that cherry has been 




FIG. 116— SECTIONS OF GRAFTS 

1. Plum cleft graft. 2. Bud grafts one and three years old. Note old 
stock wood and continuous layers of young tissue. 



132 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



found growing on willow, sycamore on laurel, laurel on 
cherry and so on. Such cases, except as noted (207), are 
not grafts at all but are merely trees of one kind growing 
in soil held in crevices of another kind — cases by no 
means rare. 

194. Stock — any plant part, usually root or stem, in 
which a bud or a'cion is inserted to propagate a plant 
species, variety or strain. 

195. Cion — any plant part, usually of a stem, inserted 
in a stock for propagation. It may consist of one bud 
with little or no wood, as in budding, or of one or more 
buds with one or more inter-nodes, as in grafting. 

196. Objects of graftage. Graftage may be used : 1, 
To alter plant character by modifying wood, foliage, or 
fruit produced. 2, To develop branches, flowers or fruit 
where they are lacking on trees or shrubs. 3, To enhance 




FIG. 117— SIDE GRAFT 

1. Stock, chisel and mallet; 2. Incision made and graft wrapped; 3. Waxed, 
completed graft — cion at right. 



GRAFTAci': — (;i:\i-:kai, t()xsii)i:KAri()XS 133 

the vig-or of defective or exhausted -trees and shrubs by 
influx of fresh sap. 4, Tu facilitate rei)roduction of 
monoecious or diiecious i)hints l)y grafting- in cions of 
the lacking sex. 5, To propagate and preserve varieties 
of countless woody and some herbaceous plants which 
cannot be conveniently reproduced by other means. 

197. Necessity for graftage. Since seedage is quicker 
and cheaper, graftage is rarely employed to propagate 
species, and then only stich species as produce seed spar- 
ingly under cultivation are so reproduced. For similar 
reasons cuttage and layerage are preferred for most 
shrubs. Graftage finds its chief a])plication, therefore, 
in the propagation of varieties and strains of woody 
l)lants that do not come true from seeds and that cannot 
l)e cheaply or conveniently enough g'rown from cuttings, 
layers or by other asexual methods. All our named 
varieties of tree fruits, nuts and many ornamentals such 
as azaleas and roses (not all roses, by any means) are 
propagated by one or more methods of graftage. As in 
other asexual methods, graftage will produce the same 
variety as the parent tree or shrub, bud sports excepted. 

For these reasons graftage is a necessary business 
process, because nowadays planters demand stock true 
to a definite standard of quality, size, trueness to type and 
ability to meet other requirements which can be met, 
at least among- woody and many herbaceous plants, only 
l)y asexual means, among which graftage has been proved 
by commercial nurseries to be the most economical. If 
this were not so, other methods would be followed; for 
the nurserymen are human enougfh to choose the methods 
that give results most satisfactory to all concerned ; other- 
wise they could not long be in the business. Hence we 
find pome fruits still largely root-grafted in winter 
(though budding is gaining in popularity), pit fruits bud- 
ded in summer, currants grown from spring-set cuttings 
— each kind of plant propagated by the method that suits 
it best and most economically gives best results. 




134 



r, R A FT AG !•: — GEN ERAI. CO N S I UERAT ION S 



'35 



198. Unreliability of seeds. — Graftage of some other 

asexual process is necessary also because seeds cannot 

be relied upon to produce varieties of tree and l)ush 

fruits or of many shrubs, herbaceous perennials and other 

plants true to name, the reason being that the ty])e has 

not been fixed by that method as in the case of many 

vegetables, annuals and some perennial flowers. 

For instance, if seeds of the Northern Spy apple (l'.)9) or of 
Salway peach were sown, all we might be able to say of the 
young trees grown would be that they were respectively apple and 
peach trees ; possibly not one would resemble the parent enough 
to deserve the name Northern Spy apple or Salway peach. 

The cause of this lies in the fact 
that from prehistoric time flowers 
of fruits have naturally cross pol- 
linated. perhai:)S usually not been 
fertilized by their own pollen nor 
perhaps even by that from other 
flowers in the same cluster or yet 
the same tree, but from some 
tree of a different variety, ^^'ind 
and insects are the chief carriers 
of the pollen which impresses 
parental characters upon the 
ovules in the flowers of our 
Northern Spy apple or Salway 
peach so the seedlings may be 
better, but the overwhelming 
chances are they will not be even 
as good. This form of reproduc- 
tion, continued for countless 
centuries, has mixed things up 
so that seeds cannot be relied 
upon in the classes mentioned. 
The exceptions are so conspicuous that they prove the rule. 

Among peaches the Honey group, grown to some ex- 
tent in Florida, and the Heath Cling come fairly true to 
type from seed. Among apples it is said the Duchess of 




FIG. 119— PRECOCIOUS CI. EFT 
GRAFTS 
Lower cion set five apples the 
first year and the upper two had 
several fruits the second year. 



136 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



Oldenburg, the Yellow Transparent and some other Rus- 
sian varieties do the same thing. In spite of much dis- 
cussion two or three decades ago it seems settled now 
that the influence of pollen does not noticeably affect the 
character of the fruit which contains the cross-pollinated 
seed. But this is a topic which does not concern the 
present discussion. 




FIG. 120— TREE PEDDLERS' SHEDS AT NURSERY 

Each peddler has a numbered shed where he makes up his packages of trees bought 
from the nursery. 

199. Northern Spy seedlings — W. T. Macoun of Canada grew 
100 Northern Spy seedlings concerning which this summary is 
presented : 35 per cent resembled the parent in general appearance, 
12 per cent in form, 39 per cent in flesh, 19 per cent in color, 3.5 
per cent in flavor and 28 per cent in no marked resemblance. Most 
of the seedlings, like the parent, were late in coming into bearing. 
This investigator concludes that the Spy is one of the best parents 
to use in cross breeding, since it has impressed its good character- 
istics on a large proportion of its progeny, although a self or 
nearly self-sterile variety. 

200. Importance of graftage.* — Graftage, while one of 
the most impc^rtant of horticultural processes, is one of 



♦Paragraph 200 has been considerably condensed from Technical Bulle- 
tin No. 2, by F. A. Waugh, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. 



ckAirAcii — c;i:m:kal l'onsidickatidns 



137 



the most intricate. Because of its importance and the dif- 
hculties in solving- its i)rol:)lems it has given rise to much 
study and many theories often Imsed on imperfect obser- 
\ations in disregard of obvious and simple facts. 

(Iraftage is said to be the union of a cion with a stock. 
.So far as nurseryman and fruit grt)vver are concerned 
this is the prime aim. Success or failure from their 
standpoint depends upon the nature of this union. The 
terms good and poor unions, are among the commonest 
in horticulttiral parlance; yet their meaning is generally 






FIG. 121— DIAGRAMS OF GRAFT AND BUD CROSS SECTIONS 

A, cleft graft three years old; B, bud graft at three years; C, separateness of 
lcIIs in stock and cion. (Black parts in A and B represent stock; in C, the cion.) 



conjectured. The easy statement that stock and cion 
grow together does not satisfy the question, //ozc do they 
unite? The i)oj)ular idea is that the union is like the knit- 
ting of a broken bone, also that both stock and cion 
produce new tissue which commingle more or less as 
liuman skin does after the surgical operation of skin 
grafting. But both these suppositions are vague and far 
from the truth. Possibly in herbaceous grafting where 
soft growing tissues are used there may be unions of these 
characters, but even in such cases the blending seems to 
be purely local; for original stock and original cion 
maintain their individuality — each will produce fruit 
after its kind. 



138 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



In graftage of mature wood such a blending is impos- 
sible; for with the exception of the cambium layer both 
stock and cion consist almost wholly of dead heart wood 
and dead bark which cannot unite with anything. 

It is different to say the cambium layers of stock and 
cion unite. But even this statement does not exi)lain 




hRj. 122— SECTION OF APPLE GRAFTS 
1. Transverse section. 2. Longitudinal. 

the process, though it leads in the right direction, for the 
cambium and a few layers of cells on each side of it are 
the only part of an exogenous stem really alive. Upon 
it depends the possibility of a graft union. 

Even naked eye examination of cross or transverse 
sections of successful grafts several years old will show 
(1) that cion and stock have not united and (2) that 
wood produced after the union is as continuous as in an 
nngrafted stem. At least in the layers that bury a graft 
junction whatever dift'erence there may be is not appar- 
ent. The truth of the diagram (Fig. 121) is fully sup- 



GRAFTAGli GENERAL COXSIDEKAIIUNS 



139 



ported l)y photographic cross sections of both i^ rafted 
and hndded stems (Fig-. 116). In every case the line 
of demarcation between stock and cion and also the 
continuous envelopes of new tissue may he clearly seen. 
Thus it is evident that: 1. Stock and cion d(j not unite; 
they remain distinct. 2. Annual layers produced after 
ijrafting: do net unite in the common meaning of that 




FIG. 123— PLUM GRAFTS SHOWING CONTINUOUS LAYERS OF NEW WOOD 
The old wood in the specimen on the right has been partly eaten out by ants. 

term; each is complete and continuous. 3. In hardwood 
graftage "union" of stock and cion is different in its 
physical nature from the sense of common speech. 

These simple obvious conclusions suggest questions 
and doubts which do nnich to disguise the main facts. 
For instance, the horticulturist knows that when a pear 
cion is grafted on a quince stock, every bud aboxe the 
union av'11 produce pears and every one below, quinces. 

But there is a division (and there must be) between 



140 



PLANT rkOPACATION 



the two kinds of wood ; what is its nature? How definite 
is it? Is it physically strong or weak? Would answers 
to these questions be more than speculations? It must 
be remembered, however, that such answers are beyond 
the conclusions cited al)o\e and that the facts so far 
presented are not affected l)y the following discussion. 

Sections of graft s 
(Fig. 124) show that 
in spite of the longitu- 
dinal continuity of the 
annual layers there is 
sometimes a plainly vis- 
il)le line of demarca- 
tion between the wood 
of stock and cion at 
right angles to the 
longitudinal growth, yet 
reveal the secret of 




FIG. 124— CHERRY CION ON PLUM STOCK 
Notice continuous annual layers of wood. 



doei: 



not 



the microscope 

individual cells which compose the tissue. One 

can nearly always see less with the microscope than with 

the naked eye ! In the section shown in Fig. 132 and 

magnified about 1,000 

times, the little knot near 

the middle accidentally 

shows one point on the 

line of junction, but the 

vessels and the cells run 

from end to end without 

interruption. So it is 

harder than ever to see 

where stock ends and 

cion begins. Hence 

those gardeners who 

have lieen dreaming of 

producing new kinds of f'G- 125— defective pear bud graft 

plants by grafting must °^ ^^"'^^ ^^^'^ 

needs wake Un * for no f^obahly due to incompatibility of stock and 
i ' cion. Notice cleanness of break. 





isr. ■ill 


^^^ ' '«^»|j^ 


Kv^-'.i-l 


Hmpih 


^k^^^M 


^^^B^f^r^ ^^^^1 


^^ ^.«r--^^ 


1 


■JL\I '^"'flH 




1 


^^^SliS IH^^I 




1 


H5^^'-'' ■II 


HIH ■- 


I 



GKAKTAGE GKX i:RAL tOXSlDKRATIONS I4I 

matter how closely the two kinds of cells may be against 
each other their contents never mingle to produce a new 
cell. Every cell is the production by division of some other 
cell ; never the product of fusion of two parent cells (Fig. 
121). The commingling of stock and cion cells is purely 
l)h3'sical, not physiological. 

In budding, merely a form of graftage, the layers of 
new growth are continuous — just as in the graft. A suc- 
cessful bud graft cut (Fig. 116) shows precisely the same 
conditions as in grafting, except that the line of demarca- 
tion is less easy to see. 

The physical strength of unions is often discussed by 
horticulturists, many of whom claim that this is a point 
of weakness (201). Others claim that a successful graft 
union is the strongest point of the stem. Common obser- 
vation shows that the region of graftage is more or less 
swollen by the deposition of woody tissue, and cross sec- 
tions at such points show very close-grained wood. 
Often when grafts are cut open and dried the tissues 
check and split less at the junction point than above or 
below, thus showing extra strength of fibers. Observa- 
tion also shows that when winds break ofif branches in 
old orchards a majority of the fractures occur not where 
the grafts have been made but at other points. 

Yet grafts do sometimes break even after years of ap- 
l)arently health}- growth. \\Miy? Possibly because of 
physiological unlikeness or aversion (if such a term may 
be permitted). The wound heals slowly or poorly; loose 
primary or scar instead of stronger tissue fills the space 
and weakness follows. Clairgeau pear on qumce and 
domestica plum on peach are familiar examples. But set- 
ting aside such cases, if stock and cion are congenial to 
each other and if the cion (or bud) grows at all, the 
union should be good. Poor manipulation will cause 
many failures of grafts to grow, but will rarely affect 
strength of union in grafts which live. All degrees of 
])liysical strength may be seen in graft unions from those 












k* ' ■-'1^- ill 




FIG. 126— PROPAGATION IN GREENHOUSES 

1, Orchids on benches and in hanging pots. 2. Cyclamen large enough for sale. 
3. Geraniums by the 10,000 in a large commercial plant. 



142 



GRAKTAci': — (;i:.\'i:kal e-()Xsii)i':KATTONS 



143 



stronger than tlie coiitis^nous parts of the same stems to 
those incai)a])lc of hohlin,^- themselves in place. 

201. Physical strength of graft unions. From the 
standpoint of plant anatomy and physiology grafts ma\- 
be weak in several ways. 1, Physical weakness at point 
of union; 2, cion leaves may find it difficult to elab- 
orate sap taken up by stock roots ; 3, stock roots may 
iind difficulty in assimilating plant food elal)orated by the 
leaves ; 4, there may be 
an interruption in the 
upward flow of sap due 
to faulty connection of 
the xylem (203) vessels 
at the point of union ; 5, 
a similar one in the 
downward flow, due to 
faulty union of the 
phloem (202) ; 6, the 
quantity of sap taken up 
by the root may be too 
much or too little for the 
proper supply of the 
cion ; 7, the amf)unt of 
elaborated sap from the 
cion may be either too 
much or too little for 
j)roper feeding of the 
stock. 

Concerning these points N. O. Booth of the Oklahoma 
station has been conducting experiments upon which 
he has made a progress report from which the following 
points are takeii. Unfortunately, a fire destroyed later 
material and data, so the i)reliniinary report is ol)liged to 
stand by itself. 

Physical weakness is a difficult question because of the 
variation between 'different trees and different unions of 
stock and cion. To test it, the wood of 10-year-old 




127-\\ EHPIN(, AH I, BERRY ON 
ERECT STEM 



CRAI'lACI-: — CI'.Xl-.KAl. (OX SI I H-.KATTOXS 



145 



trees was tested as to its ])liysiral strength by a machine 
used for such pnr])nses. Except in the last case cited 




FIG. 129— CUTTINGS AND WHIP GRAFT 

1. a, straight cuttings; b, c, mallet cuttings; d, heel cutting. These methods 

are all used for grape propagation. 2, whip or tongue graft; a, stock; b, 

cion prepared; c, stock and cion fitted properly; d, parts tied together; e, com- 
pleted by waxing; f, whip graft on root. 



T4^ PLANT PROPAGATION 

he-low, the tests were ])uri)()sely made within three weeks 
of the tree felling, because it was believed green wood 
rather than seasoned represents more nearly conditions in 
growing trees. 

Test of Transverse Breaking Strength 

At union Above union 

point, lbs. point, lbs. 

Plum, first block 2,540 4,750 

Plum, second block 3,160 4,950 

To eliminate possible discrepancy due to the breaking 
point of the union being closer to the ground, and hence 
possibly in softer wood, the next block was broken above 
and below as well as at the union. 

Test of Transverse Breaking Strength 



At union 


Above union 


Below union 


point, lbs. 


point, lbs. 


point, lbs. 


3,300 


8,260 


4,100 


2,560 


7,940 





Apricot, first block 

Apricot, second block 

Tensile strength of one-half-inch strips of apricot : No. 
1 broke at union with 1,330 pounds pull; above, 1,550; 
No. 2 broke slightly below union with 2,870 pounds pull, 
sl'ghtly above 1,770, but would not break at union. 

Test of Transverse Breaking Strength 

At union Above union 
point, lbs. point, lbs. 
Apricot, seasoned four months 1,930 4,355 

The results, Professor Booth points out, "are very posi- 
tive and it does not seem at all likely that further tests 
will invalidate the statement that for many trees the point 
of union is a real and evident weakness. It is true, how- 
ever, that all three trees tested were apparently strong, 
had made vigorous growth and had never broken in any 
way. They were about eight inches thick and about 10 
years old. For orchard purposes this weakness does nc^t 
appear to be of importance. There is also no question 
but that the thickening of the trunk, which usually shows 
at the point of union, may lessen materially the weakness 
of the trunk at this point." 

202. Phloem, that portion of a fibro-vascular bundle in 
plants containing the bast and sieve tissue. In exogens 



GRAFTAC.R Cl'.X I:R.\I, (( )XSI 1)I:UA TK )NS 



147 




it is ;il\va)s sharply (Iclincd from llic 
rcniainiiii;- portion (xylcni, 2(y->) by a 
layer of cainbiuni. The inner bark is 
derived from the ])hl()eni, the wood 
from the x}lem. The elaborated plant 
food from the leaves passes down and 
is distributed by the phloem. 
FIG. 130— TWO YEAR 203. Xvlem, or woody portion of a 

SPY BUDDED TREES £, , , 11 1 ■ 1 „<- "^^ 

fibro-vascular bundle which contains 

A, stem cut at 15 inches 
and grafted. B, Uncut. 
This shows that top- 
working checks growth. 
It also delays bearing. 

the larger continuous air- 
holding vessels and the walls 
of whose cells are often 
thickened and lignified. The 
xylem is separated from the 
phloem (202) by the cam- 
bium, when there is any. and 
it usually occupies the side 
of the bundle toward the 
center of the stem. \\'ater 
with the mineral compounds 
in solution passes up 
through the xylem to the 
leaves. 

204. Limits of graftage. 
Theoretically botanists and 
nurserymen have limited 
graftage to the exogens, 
plants which have a cam- 
bium layer in a definite re- 
gion beneath a bark layer; 
for the process depends upon 
the intimate union of 

... , . , root pruned for two or more years to 

this layer l^etWeen stock have large bunches of short fibrous roots. 

and cion. 




FIG. 



131— BURLAPPED 1 UR 
SHIPMENT 



Trees so handled have usually been 



,^r .1 I r- 1 They are almost sure to grow when 

( )f the 101 ,'^A_ 



148 



PLANT rUOPAGATION 



orders, 890 genera and 4,200 species listed in Gray's Field, 
Forest and Garden Botany, 110 orders, 650 genera and 
3,000 species come under this ruling and (theoretically) 
may be grafted, while the balance, the endogens which 
lack the cambium sheath (oat, bamboo, palm) cannot 
be grafted. \\'ith experimental exceptions (Chapter 
XII) this is so. 

Among exogens botanical relationship seems in most 
cases to be fundamental to success in graftage which is 
usually easy between varieties of the same species (apple 




FIG. 132— GREATLY MAGNIFIED SECTION THROUGH YOUNG GRAFT, 

Round mass of scar tissue near center merely accidental. 

Upon apple) and often between closely related species 
(pear upon quince, or plum upon peach). Sometimes 
species more remotely related than the genus will prove 
successful; for instance, apple or pear (Pyrus) upon 
thorn {Crater gus). But rarely, and then mostly experi- 
mentally, can distantly related species be grafted suc- 
cessfully ; probably not at all from a business standpoint. 
A few instances may emphasize these points. While 
pear is commercially grafted upon quince to form dwarf 
trees, apple is seldom or never so treated, and quince 



CKAI 'TACl'. (;i..\i:k.\l. CONSIDl-.KAIIO.XS I _|i , 

does iK)t succeed on citlicr i)car or .ipple; j^ooseherrx' ma' 
he .grafted upon only one species of currant {Ribi's 
aurcum ) but currants do not succeed on gooseberries ; apples 
succeed commercially only upon apple stock ; peaches and 
])lums will each g-row upon the other. For years Prunet 
tried to make chestnuts grow upon oak in the hope of 
])reventing" certain diseases. His conclusions are that 
the plan will not succeed commercially, though he was 
successful in many instances. Daniel and others have 
made many remarkable grafts between distantly related 
species, so the theory that species must be more or less 
closely related has been knocked on the head. But from 
a commercial standpoint, the theory is still operative and 
probably will continue to be. 

While species of the same genus may be grafted suc- 
cessfully, it may not be profitable so to do. From a 
physiological standpoint the best index of success is the 
general thriftiness of the plant so produced; from a 
business standpoint, the fact that nurserymen and other 
])lant propagators stick by the methods that make them 
most money. To be successful, stock and cion must 
both unite firmly without seriously checking plant ac- 
tivity and continue growth until normal fruit is ripened. 

205. Common rules of graftage. Graftage in one form 
or another and with various species of plants may be 
done during almost any month provided the method be 
adapted to the time of year and to other conditions. 
Always it is essential that the parts fit snugly. Prefer- 
ably the cambium layer of the cion should be in intimate 
contact \yith that of the stock. This layer is most active 
during- early spring when the buds are swelling and the 
leaves are expanding. A second period of activity occurs 
usually soon after midsummer, but sometimes not until 
early fall, dependent largely upon the amount of moisture 
in the soil. During these two periods wounds heal most 
rapidly and union betw^een stock and cion is most cer- 
tain. At other times, since the cambium becomes firmer 



150 



rLANT PROPAGATION 



p.iul less distinct because of the development of other tis- 
sues from it, the union of stock and cion is less sure. 
At such seasons it is also more important to cover the 
wounds to prevent or check loss of moisture from the 
wounds. 

Wax (285) is usually used in outdoor work where the 
wood itself is cut, but where only the bark is cut, as in 
l>udding, it is necessary to bind only the bark firmly 
over the bud and the wound until the union is complete. 
Then the bindings must be cut to prevent strangulation. 




FIG. 133— STKAM TREE DK.i.l.K' IN HKi i-JI !<.Sr.KY 

Steam tree diggers are used only in the largest nurseries. They are very satis- 
factory 

It is an erroneous theory that cleft grafts will die if the 
adjacent bark of the stock is wounded seriously. The 
liark serves scarcely a greater purpose than that of 
]:)rotecting the tissues beneath. Cions often grow in the 
almost total absence of the bark of the stock, provided 
])roper protection is given and the formation of new bark 
thus encouraged. 

It is necessary that each cion have at least one sturdy 
bud. As a rule, only mature buds, or those approximately 
mature, are employed, though in herbaceous grafting 
A'ounger ones may be used. Cions may be inserted in 
whole or piece roots, crowns, trunks, branches ; in fact, 



GRArxAcr-: — cenkrai. considkrations 1 51 

any ])art that will meet the re([uirenieiUs of cion milri- 
tiiin, as tubers of dahlia, potato, sweet i)otato. 'l"he \va_\' 
of setting- may vary from merely placing a bud beneath 
the bark to inserting a woody cion in the wood of a 
stock, as in cleft grafting. Again the work may be done 
with dormant specimens at any time of year or upcMi 
active wood during the growing season. The methods 
and variations are countless ; but in general only a few 
are simple and quick enough to be of wide or general use. 
The others are more for the specialist and for finicky sub- 
jects which the average nurseryman, gardener or florist 
will not "fuss with." 



CHAPTER XI 

IS GRAFTAGE DEVITALIZING? 

206. Points involved in discussion. — Nowadays we hear 
little discussion as to whether or not graftage is a de- 
vitalizing process. Perhaps this is largely because of 
investigations made at various domestic and foreign ex- 
periment stations and teachings of agricultural colleges 
and schools at home and abroad. But even so late as the 
early nineties, discussion was rife and even such well- 
known writers as Burl)idge of Ireland and Bailey of the 
United States took opposite sides. Beginning about a 
decade later Lucien Daniel and other European inves- 
tigators began to present results of their exhaustive 
studies which as yet seem to have made little impression 
in America. As Daniel is copiously quoted in this 
volume, it is thought advisable to i)resent the picture of 
conditions as they existed in the early nineties before 
he began to publish his findings. Therefore the next few 
paragraphs have been condensed from an address by 
Bailey before the F^eninsula Horticultural Society at 
Dover, Delaware, in 1892. 

To the popular mind graftage seems mysterious. People look 
upon it as akin to magic, opposed to nature. Strange, for the 
operation is simple! The process of union is nothing more than 
the healing of a wound. It is not more mysterious than rooting of 
cuttings. Natural grafts are fairly connnon among forest trees. 
Occasionally union is so complete the foster stock entirely sup- 
ports and nourishes the other. Stem cuttings, however, are rare 
among w^ild plants ; in fact, there is in the North but one common 
instance: certain brittle willows whose twigs drop in moist places 
and sometimes take root. 

Why is union of cion and stock anj^ more mysterious or unusual 
than rooting of cuttings? Is it not simpler and more normal? A 
wounded surface heals over to protect the plant. When two 
wounded surfaces of consanguineous plants are closely applied, 
nothing is more natural than that the nascent cells should interlock 
and unite. But why bits of stem should throw out roots from 

1.53 



154 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



their lower portion and leaves from their upper portion when both 
ends may be to every human sense exactly alike, is a mystery. 

. It does not follow from these propositions that graftage is a de- 
sirable method of multiplying plants, but simply that direct and 
positive evidence is needed. Much has been said concerning the 
merits of graftage. Opponents have made sweeping statements of 
the perniciousness of the system. Discussion started in an English 
journal from an editorial which opened as follows. 








FIG. 135— STAGES OF CLEFT GRAFTING 

1. Sawing limb to form stock. 2. Making the cleft. 3. Placing the cions. 
4. Waxing. 5. Cion growing. In this case both cions grew, but one was accidentally 
iM-oken off. 



"We doubt if there is a greater nuisance in the whole practice 
of gardening than the art of grafting. It is very clever, it is very 
interesting, but it will be no great loss if it is abolished altogether. 
It is for the convenience of the nurserymen that it is done in nine 
cases out of ten, and in nearly all instances it is not only needless, 
Init harmful. ... If we made the nurserymen give us things (ni 
their own roots, they would find some quick means of doing so." 

For two years discussion continued, and many excellent observers 
took part. Some of the denunciations of graftage are [condensed 
and the statements of various writers run together] as follows : 



IS GRAFTAGE DEVITALIZING? 155 

"Grafting is alvvaj'S a makeshift, and very often a fraud. It 
is in effect a kind of adulteration. Grafted plants are open to all 
kinds of accidents and disaster, and often soil, climate or cultivator 
are blamed for evils which originated in the nursery. If, in cer- 
tain cases, grafting as a convenience must he resorted to, let it he 
root grafting, so that eventually the cion will root itself in a natural 
way. Toy games, such as graltinir and budding, must be abandoned 
and real work begun on some sensible plan. Any tree that will 
not succeed on its own roots had better go to the rubbish pile at 
once. We want no coddled or grafted stuff when own-rooted 
things are in all ways better, healthier and longer lived." 

These quotations show the positiveness with which graftage has 
been assailed. As presumption is in favor of any universal prac- 
tice they possess extraordinary interest. 

The assumptions underlying these denunciations are three: 1. 
Citation of instances in which graftage has given pernicious re- 
sults. 2. Affirmation that the process is unnatural. 3. The state- 
ment that own-rooted plants are better than graft-rooted plants. 

1. Citations of injurious effects of graftage are usually confined to 
ornamental plants, commonlj' the tendency of stocks to sucker and 
choke grafts. Conversely, in numerous instances it does not occur ; 
for instance, in peach, apple, pear, and many other fruit trees, and 
in very many ornamentals. In fact, it is probably no more common 
than is. suckering of plants grown from cuttings; for instance, 
cutting-grown or sucker-grown plums. These remarks apply wath 
equal force to all citations of the ill effects of graftage; the cases 
simoly show that the operation is open to objections in the partic- 
ular instances cited ; no proof that with other plants graftage may 
not be a success. Graftage has been indiscriminately employed, 
and there ha\e been many failures, but this does not prove the 
process wrong. If there are plants upon which graftage is success- 
ful the ODeration itself is not wrong, however many cases there 
may be to which it is not adapted. 

2. That graftage is unnatural, and therefore pernicious, is a 
fallac3^ There is nothing to show it is anything more unnatural 
than making cuttings. If naturalness is proved by frequency of 
occurrence in nature, then graftage is the more natural. But the 
whole discussion of mere naturalness of any operation is aside 
from the question; for every garden operation — transplanting, 
pruning or tillage — -is in some sense unnatural ; yet these "unnat- 
ural processes" sometimes increase plant longevity and virility. 

3. An assumption hi 1 with dogmatic positiveness by many 
writers is that own-rnMi'd plants are better than foster-rooted 
ones. If mere rarity ( r lack of occurrence in nature is no proof 
of perniciousness, tl e statement admits of argument just as 
much as any other topii^- The citation of ill effects of graftage is 
no i)roof that own-roo'.ed plants are better if there should still 
remain cases in which no injurious effects follow. If it is true tiiat 
"own-rooted things are in all ways infinitely better, healthier, and 



156 PLANT rkUPAGATION 

longer lived" than foster-rooted plants, and if "grafted plants of 
all kinds are open to all sorts of accidents and disaster," then the 
proposition should admit of abundant proof. The subject may be 
analyzed by discussing the following questions: a. Is the union 
always imperfect? b. Are grafted plants less virile, shorter lived 
than own-rooted ones? 

a. It is well known that the physical union between cion and 
stock is often imperfect and remains a point of weakness through- 
out the life of a plant (201). ^But this is not always true. Scores of 
plants make perfect physical union with other plants of their own 
species, or even with other species. Therefore, these alone are the 
plants that should be grafted. The best proof that can be adduced 
that the union may be physically perfect, is in the micro-photograph 
published by Prof. C. S. Crandall. [Similar ones are shown on 
pages 138, 140.] The cells are knit together so completely it is im- 
possible to determine the exact line of union. 

Professor Crandall also figures a microscopic section of an apple 
graft in which the union is very poor, but this graft is made in a 
different manner, another proof that operation should be suited 
to subject. These were grafts made upon nursery stock. It would 
appear that if the union were good at the expiration of the first 
year it would remain good throughout the plant's life. In order to 
test this point two apple trees 1.5 years old and over six inches in 
diameter grafted at the surface of the ground in the nursery, were 
split into many pieces in the presence of two critical observers, but 
no mark whatever could be found of the old union. [Similar con- 
ditions may be seen on page 148.] 

b. Are grafted plants shorter lived than others? It is evident that 
a poor union or an uncongenial stock will make the resulting graft 
weak, a further proof that indiscriminate graftage is to be dis- 
couraged. But these facts do not affirm the question. 

Many persons hold that any asexual propagation is in the end 
devitalizing, since the legitimate method of propagation is by means 
of seeds. This notion appears to be confirmed by Darwin's conclu- 
sions that the ultimate function of sex is really to vitalize and 
strengthen the offspring following the union of characters or 
powers of two parents ; for if the expensive sexual propagation 
invigorates the type, asexual propagation would seem to weaken it. 
It does not follow, however, that because sexual reproduction is 
good, asexual increase is bad, but rather that one is as a rule better 
than the other, without saying that the other is injurious. Some 
plants have been asexually propagated for centuries with appar- 
ently no decrease of vitality. This fact, however, does not prove 
that the plant may not have positively increased in virility if sex- 
ual propagation had been employed. The presumption is always 
in favor of sexual reproduction, a point which everyone will admit. 

Here is where graftage has an enormous theoretical advantage 
over cuttage or any other asexual multiplication : the grafted 
plant springs from sexual reproduction. If the union is physically 
perfect, as is frequently the case, there is reason to suppose that 



IS GRAFTACili UKNITALIZING ? I 57 

grafting between consanguineous plants is better than propagating 
by cuttings or layers. In other words, graftage is really sexual 
multiplication; so if seeds have an advantage over buds in forming 
the plant foundation, graftage is a more perfect method than any 
other artificial practice — in fact the nearest approach to direct sex- 
ual reproduction. So when seeds cannot be relied upon wholly, 
as they cannot, for the reproduction of many garden varieties, 
graftage is the ideal practice ; always provided, of course, that it 
is properly done between congenial subjects. It is not to be ex- 
pected that the practice is adapted to all plants, any more than is 
the making of cuttings of leaves or of stems, but this fact cannot 
be held to invalidate the system. 

Is there direct evidence to show that "grafting is always a make- 
shift," a "toy game,"' that "grafted plants are open to all sorts of 
accidents and disaster," that "own-rooted things are better, healthier, 
and longer lived"? These statements allow of no exception; they 
are universal and iron-bound. If the questions were to be fully 
met, we should need to discuss the whole art of graftage in all its 
detail, but if there is one well-authenticated case in which a grafted 
plant is as strong, as hardy, as vigorous, as productive and as long 
lived as seedlings or as cutting plants, we shall have established the 
fact that the operation is not necessarily bad, and have created the 
presumption that other cases exist. An instance will serve. 

In the forties about 100 apple trees were grown from seeds on a 
Michigan farm, but as most of the fruit was poor or indifferent the 
trees were top-grafted in the most desultory manner, some being 
grafted piecemeal with some of the original branches allowed to 
remain permanently, while others were entirely changed over at 
once; a few of them grafted on the trunk when as large as 
broomsticks, the whole top having been cut off when the oper- 
ation was performed. A few trees which chanced to bear toler- 
able fruit were not grafted. 

Many of the trees died from indeterminable causes ; fully half of 
the de^iths have been seedling trees for many years as vigorous 
as the grafted ones. Of the trees that remain the grafted specimens 
are in every way as vigorous, hardy and productive as the others. 
Some of these trees have two tops, one grafted shoulder high in 
the earlv days, the other in the resulting top many years later. 
Those trees which contain both original branches and grafted ones 
in the same top show similar results — the foreign branches are in 
every way as vigorous, virile and productive as the others, and are 
proving to be as long-lived. 

This positive experiment compassed by the lifetime of one man 
shows that own-rooted trees arc not a'ways "infinitely better, 
healthier, and longer-lived" than grafted plants. The illustration 
may be considered typical of thi)usands of orchards, containing 
various fruits in all parts of the country. 

The fact may be cited that the old seedling orchards about the 
country are much more uneven and contain more dead trees or 
vacant places than ccmmcrcial grafted urchards of even the same 



158 PLANT PROPAGATION 

age. This is due to the struggle for existence in the old orchards 
hy which the weak trees have disappeared, while the grafted or- 
chards, heing made up of selected varieties of known virility and 
hardiness, have remained more nearly intact. If the seedling or- 
chards have suffered more than the grafted ones it must be because 
they have had more weak spots. 

The universal favor in which graftage is held in America is 
itself a strong presumption in its favor. Growers differ among 
themselves as to the best methods of performing the operation, 
but an intelligent American will not condemn the system as nec- 
essarily bad or wrong. 

Of the vast number of grafted and budded trees sold annually by 
nurserymen probably half die from various causes before they 
reach bearing age, but graftage itself plays a small part in the 
failure, as may be seen in the case of grapes and small fruits, 
which outnumber the tree fruits in nursery stock, and of which 
less than one-half reach maturity, and yet these are cutting- 
grown plants. It is in nineteen cases out of twenty the care- 
lessness of the grower which lirings failure. 

It is impossible, if one considers the facts broadly and candidly, 
to arrive at any other conclusion than this : Graftage is not 
suited to all plants, but in those to which it is adapted — and they 
are many — it is not a devitalizing process. 



CHAPTER XII 
DANIEL'S EXPERIMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS 

207. Functional capacity of plants. — Daniel gives the 
following broad generalizations on the relationship be- 
tween absorption, assimilation and transpiration in 
plants. By functional capacity is meant the processes 
involved in the absorption and utilization of crude ma- 
terials by the plant. If the function of absorption or the 
total absorption from external surroundings be repre- 
sented by CA, and the functional capacity of consump- 
tion or total consumption at the points where the sap is 
used up be represented by CV, then in a plant in com- 
plete equilibrium as regards its general nutrition CV= 
CA and ^ =1. If, however, aerial consumption is 
greater than the usual subterranean absorption, then the 
formula P^ > 1. This corresponds to growth in dry or 
poor soil. \\ hen absorption is greater than consumption, 
as in moist or rich soils, the formula becomes —§^ < 

Conditions similar to these are sometimes brought 
about by grafting. The cicatrization of the grafted 
plants and the intercalcated tissue between stock and 
cion interfere with the condition of sap, modifying it 
both in quantity and quality. These modifications of 
the cion are equivalent to growth in a drier, poorer 
medium than the normal. In grafting it is also necessary 
to keep in mind the relative functional capacities of the 
two grafted plants. For example, if the functional ca- 
pacity of consum])tion is greater in the cion than in the 
stock this condition becomes exaggerated by the scar 
of cicatrization when the two plants are grafted, and the 
graft either fails to take or makes a poor growth, cor- 
responding to that in poor dry soil. The chance for mak- 

169 



i6o 



I" LA NT rRUPACATION 



ing a successful graft in such a case is increased if the 
development of adventitious roots from the cion is en- 
couraged, so that assimilation may correspond more 
closely to a normal absorption of the cion. 

208. Graftage laws. — Daniel draws the following con- 
clusions from certain of his experiments: 1, The relative 
affinity or difference of functional capacities between 
stock and cion at different periods of the symbiosis 
plays a very important role in the success, .duration, 
and biology of all grafts. 2, Environ- 
ment, weather, etc., particularly sud- 
den changes of environment, have com- 
siderable reaction on the whole, a re- 
action greater than in normal plants. 
3, Various irregularities like diseases 
result from faulty nutrition, due to 
badly chosen grafts. 

209. Disease due to grafting. — A 
study of grafts l^etween various species 
of Solanum (pepper, tomato, eggplant, 
etc.) has led Daniel to conclude that 
many of the physiological troubles of 
plants commonly considered as dis- 
eases are in reality due to the em- 
ployment of antagonistic stocks and 
cions. 

210. Grafts are of two classes,* anatomical 
(grafts l)y approach) and physiological (true) ; 
the latter divided into two groups, ordinary 
and mixed. In the ordinary the stock 
is deprived entirely of its assimilating 
apparatus (the green parts) and the cion of its 

absorbing parts (the roots). Tn the mixed graft proper the stock 
may preserve part or all of its assimilating apparatus and the 
cion part or all of its absorbing apparatus. In grafting by ap- 
proach success is attained when the two plants grow together in 
an enduring manner so that if separated a wound is formed. 
The graft proper is said to succeed when, after having lived a 
certain time on the stock, the cion produces fertile seeds. 




FIG. 136— 

YOUNG APPLE 

ROOT GRAFT 

This is student work 



952. 



*L Daniel, Rev. Gen. Bot. 12, summnrized in E.\. Sfa. Record, Vol. 12, pp. 947,- 



__ ; 



i)AMi:i.'s i;.\i'i:ki M i:.\ I s and (o.xn.rsroxs 



161 



The coiulilions of success oi grafts arc uf two kinds, extrinsic 
(conditions independent of the nature of the plant— as soil, tem- 
perature, etc.) and intrinsic (conditions dependent upon the 
peculiar nature of the plants grafted, as method of cicatrization, 
analogy and botanical relations. The extrinsic conditions neces- 
sary to observe by approach are: 1, .V temperature suf- 
ticient to produce primary tissue; 2, prevention of all conditions 
which cause rotting or drying of the cicatrized meristem (pri- 
n.ary tissue) ; and :J, maintenance of adherence of the wounds by 
the aid of ligatures susceptible of being loosened progressively 
with the growth of the plant. 

211. Cicatrization. — Plants cicatrize 
their wounds either by simple drying 
of the cut tissues and neighboring 
cells or by regeneration of tissues by 
the aid of the primary tissue. All 
methods have failed with the mono- 
cotyledons and cryptogams experi- 
mented upon. Hence Daniel concludes 
that grafting by approach is impos- 
sible with plants that cicatrize their 
wounds by desiccation of the wounded 
cells and neighboring tissues ; i. e., are 
incapable of regenerating tissue. 

In order to learn whether only 
plants with cambium may be grafted, 
as generally believed, Daniel worked 
with many monocots and cryptogams 
and secured a perfect cicatrization by 
the tongue graft with gladiolus, day 
lily (Finikia cordata), Caladium, white 
lily {Globba coccinea) and several 
others, even with one of the club 
mosses (Sclagiiiella arborca). The 
success of these grafts shows that 
grafting by approach is possible 
with certain monocots and that the 

presence of the cambium layer is not always necessary to the success 
of all grafts by approach. 

212. Analogy. — The difference in hardness and the histological 
nature of woods may not be an obstacle to anatomical union. .\ 

natural, distinct cicatrization occurred 
between grafted oak and beech, and 
between fir and linden, oak and ash 
united by their stems and oak and 
walnut by their roots. Rose and grane 
have also been united. Nevertheless, 
the graft by approach does not always 
succeed between plants so different- 
Daniel tried in vain to graft horse 
chestnut on common chestnut. 



i 




*■ 




m 


^^ 






i 



FIG. 137 



-GRAFT WRAPPING 
MACHINE 



A great time saver 




FIG. 138— GRAFTERS' 
BUDDERS' KIT 



Tools, cions etc., are carried tluis. 



l62 



PLANT PI«)PAGATION 




FIG. 139— DIGGING LARGE TREES FOR SHIPMENT 

1. Forks are used to reduce injury to the roots. 2. Roots are wrapped in moss 
and straw. 



i)A.\ii:i/s i:xim;kii\ii:.\is axd t tJXCLLSioNs ir)3 

Accumulation oi reserve material in ve.i^etative plant parts lias no 
special importance in grafting, as jjroved hy grafting turnip and 
cabbage, kale and kohl rabi, Brussels sprouts and kohl rabi, and 
kohl rabi and cauliflower. [These plants, though very different in 
form as cultivated, are all, except turnip, varieties of one species, 
Brassica olenwca — M. G. K ]. Even grafting by approach 
between roots of lettuce and aged salisfy succeeded, though 
the inulin of the salsify did not circulate in the lettuce cells. If the 
cell contents of one of the plants approached are toxic for the 
other, the graft fails. 

If a large and a small variety are grafted on each other the 
larger will develop to the detriment of the smaller, which will re- 
main nearly dwarf. Plants of different forms, like kale and cauli- 
flower [see bracket note above], may make good unions. Plants 
in active growth may be grafted by approach on plants at rest; 
e. g., seedling cabbage several weeks old was grafted in spring with 
lierfect success on a turnip whose root was fully formed. Grafting 
by approach succeeds between annuals, biennials, and perennials; 
also between biennials and perennials. The fact that fir and linden, 
and Aralia Spuiosa and A. Sicboldii were grafted by approach 
shows deciduous and evergreen plants may be intergrafted. 

213. Extrinsic conditions. — With grafts proper all extrinsic con- 
ditions are present, but in cutting ofl the top of the stock and sup- 
pressing the absorbing apparatus of the cion, there is danger of 
the death of both plants. Another fundamental extrinsic condition 
of success must be maintenance of life in the two plants till suc- 
cess is complete.. The cion is sometimes preserved by being 
placed in water as soon as made to prevent its drying out, keep 
the surface clean, and prevent the formation of sugar or other ma- 
terial on the cut surfaces. This might interfere with the free pas- 
sage of sap from stock to cion. 

In order that the cion may grow its turgescence must be re- 
established. This is secured by the imbibition of the crude sap of 
the stock by the cells of the cion, and occurs more quickly ac- 
cording as the crude sap is presented in considerable quantity, 
but also more quickly if the initial turgescence of the tissues of 
the cion has not been diminished during the preparation of the 
graft and its being put in place. This explains why it is necessary 
to operate quickly and why cuttings are often made under water 
where the cion preserves much of its turgescence and produces 
good results. It also accounts for the good effects of wax-like 
material used in open air grafting; the utility of the collar graft, 
because the osmotic force is strongest at this level; and the im- 
portance of the time of day in operating, because the osmotic force 
varies, being strongest in the evening (hence the greater success 
then). The re-establishment of turgescence in the graft is con- 
sidered fundamental to success, therefore it is impossible to graft 
parts incapable of retaining turgescence or which do not possess it. 

214. Intrinsic conditions.— In the graft proper plants incapable 
of regenerating their tissues cannot be grafted. In gladiolus and 



164 



I'LAXT rKUPAGATIOiX 



Funkia cases cited above, the anatomical cicatrization was effected by 
the parenchymatic tissues. No Hber or fibro-vascular structure was 
observed to form between cion and stock. Thus the transport of 
sap was hindered, and sooner or later both parts died. By util- 
izing the aerial roots of some monocots to supplement the absorp- 
tion of the cion, success was attained with several plants. This 
shows that failure of grafts with monocots capable of regenerating 
their tissues is due to insufficient vascular communication, since it 
becomes possible when a complimentary apparatus is supplied. 

Plants with active cambium layers, which 
may be inarched, cannot always be grafted by 
the graft proper, since the common European 
bean (Pabia) and the kidney bean, which graft 
easily by approach, have always failed when 
grafted by the graft proper, no matter what 
precautions were taken. 

Differences in wood and bark are not ob- 
stacles to success in the graft proper. Thus 
there is a great difference in the thickness and 
strength of saffiower and annual sunflower; 
between sunflower and Jerusalem artichoke; 
young cabbage and root of turnip ; root of 
cultivated carrot and that of fennel ; neverthe- 
less, these [pairs of] plants united perfectly. 
These same facts were observed with trees ; 
the graft succeeded between chestnut and oak, 
pear and hawthorn, quince and hawthorn, in 
spite of marked differences in the barks. From 
these and other grafts it is concluded that hard- 
ness, density, and elasticity of wood are second- 
ary in the success and duration of grafts, but 
it is not the same with conduction. 
When the differences of sap conductions are too great, grafts will 
not succeed; e. g., lilac and ash, cherry and almond, Cotoneaster 
and chestnut, which grow the first year, then die without fructifying. 
The duration of the graft is then very variable and depends for its 
value on differences in conduction between cion and stock. Thus 
pear grafted on quince endures for a shorter period than pear on 
pear seedling [the Yeoman's dwarf pear orchard at Walworth, 
New York, bore profitable crops for over 50 years! M. G. K.] 
When the differences of conduction are too great between plants, 
the mixed graft is sometimes used successfully where the ordinary 
graft fails. By using it Daniel united J^enwuia pracalta and Xan- 
thium macvocarpum, which failed by ordinary grafting. 

Daniel has succeeded in grafting plants whose cell contents pre- 
sented very marked differences; e. g., Chicoreaceas and Euphor- 
biacese, which have different latex contents. Previously it had been 
held that plants with milky juice could not be grafted. 

Grafts were made to determine what influence reserve material 
in plants may have on grafting. The easy grafts on roots of car- 




FIG. 140— 



CUTTING ON 
DAHLIA TUBER 



i)A.\ii:i.s i;.\n-.uiMi:xTS Axn conclusions 



i^S 



rot and parsnip show that the presence of reserve material is no 
(il)stacle to success. Those of tomato on potato, annual sunflower 
1111 Jerusalem artichoke, etc., show that the formation of tubers 
on the stock takes place even when the cion is incapable of pro- 
ducing tubers itself. In grafting in September a young cabbage on 
a purple-topped turnip, which would have begun to thicken its root, 
in October, the thickening came in the April following, when the 
cion became plethoric. It is, then, the cion which by its mode of nu- 
trition commands the function of reserve material in the stock. 




FIG. 141-S\VELLINGS DUE TO GRAFTAGE 

1. Large growing apple on small growing stock. 2. Swelling of tissues at point 
of union. 3. Pear on small growing stock. 



The inverse graft of plants susceptible of forming tubers on a 
plant which does not yield tubers may be realized. Daniel suc- 
ceeded in grafting Hclianthus loetiftonis, a species with an enlarged 
rhizome, on H. Animus, an annual species which does not form 
tubers. 'The cion grown entirely above the soil was unable to 
form tubers. The reserves passed into another form in the stock, 
which took a development altogether abnormal and became very 
ligneous. Potato grafted on eggplant and on tomato has been ob- 
served to form aerial tubers and thus store up its reserve material. 

215. Analogy in habitat seems to be a more or less important fac- 
tor. Thus Phlox dccnssata, which grows in humid soils, has not 
been successfully grafted by Daniel on P. sitbiilata, which grows on 
dry soils; though parsley, which prefers a dry soil, succeeds when 
grafted with Sison ammonium, which prefers humid soil. In the 
case of trees, pears are grafted on quinces in rich soil and on pear 
seedlings in poor soil, etc. Different soils, then, are not the most 
serious obstacles to success in grafting, but they seem to have more 
or less marked influence on the duration of the graft. 

If a dormant ligneous cion is grafted on an active ligneous 
stock, success follows, but does not follow if conditions are re- 
versed. With herbaceous plants, an active cion may be grafted on 



1 66 



PLANT PKOrACATlON 



a (lunnant stock and succeed. When cion and stock do not come 
into activity about the same time, the graft may succeed, but its 
duration will be shortened. 

In order to study the limits of the possibility of grafting, experi- 
ments were made with Rosacese, Umbelliferce. Leguminoss, Crucif- 
erie, Solanaceae and Compositsc. With Rosaces, Leguminosse 
and Crucifera; the limit of grafting seems to be confined to genera 
of the same tribe. With Solanacese and Umbellifers grafts were 
successfully made between different tribes. With Compositse the 
limit seems to be the sub-family. 

216. Herbaceous grafting has been successfully practiced ex- 
perimentally by Daniel,* with pea on bean, cabbage on kohl rabi, 

turnip, stock and other re- 
lated plants, fennel on wild 
carrot, carrot on parsnip and 
vice versa, celery on parsnip, 
winter lettuce on wild prick- 
ly lettuce, spring lettuce on 
salsify, salsify on scorzonera, 
toadtlax on snapdragon, al- 
mond, peach and prune on 
cherry. 

This experimenter also 
found : that grapes will 
unite between genera of 




t-lG. 142— BORDEAUX MIXING FOR SMALL NURSERY 

One of the upper barrels contains blue stone stock solution, the other lime 
solution. The tubs are used to dilute these solutions. The lower barrel mixes 
these two solutions which then pass as one to the spray tank through a sieve. 
A larger hose would be a decided improvement. 



♦Extended summary in Experiment Station Record, Vol. 5, p. 1089. 



i)ANii:i-s i-:xi'i-:kimi:nis and concli'Sions 



\C)y 



the same (inKr; .'.', liollDW-slcininfd annuals unite, wliile 
the pith is functional; :i, uitli trees the union is easily made and 
the swelling at the point of union is reduced to a minimum; 4. 
root grafting of herbaceous plants is most successful ; 5, duration 
of grafted plants is more or less modified by the graft, a, annuals 
f)n biennials or perennials continue to be annuals, i. e., at the end 
f)f the growing season they die and cause the partial or total 
death of the stock; b, biennial grafts with rare exceptions remain 
biennial on both biennial and perennial stocks and induce the death 
»f the stocks ; c, perennial grafts on annual or biennial stocks die 
with the stocks, but may be used as grafts on perennial stocks 
prior to this event. G, herbaceous grafts are less resistant to cold 
than are mature wood grafts; 7, time of flowering is slightly re- 
tarded among annual grafts, and at least for the first year among 
biennials and perennials ; 8, stock 
and cion are influenced reciprocally 
-sometimes cion controls stock, 
sometimes vice versa, and some- 
times both classes of cases may be 
found in the one kmd of graft but 
with different specimens. 0, Cul- 
tivated varieties grafted on wild ones 
generally show deteriorated quality 
in the fruit; 10, seed produced in 
such cases (9, just mentioned), some 
seedlings revert to the wild type and 
largely lose value as food plants, 
hence it is concluded that inferior 
stocks should not be selected for 
'^rafting when seed is to b 
saved for planting ; 11, reserve 
food of a stock is rarely utilized by the graft of a plant of another 
family. 

Circulation of liquids in grafted plants presents two extremes 
to consider: 1, cases where water absorbed by the stock passes 
m small quantity into the coin; and 2, where it is abundant. In 
the former (the commoner) the cion makes less vigorous devel- 
opment but flowers and fruits more abundantly than in Case 2 
where the vessels are larger, the sprouts more vigorous and the 
flowers and fruits less abundant, as in the case of a tree too well 
nourished. .At tirst these phenomena are physical, but later chem- 
ical changes modify the cell contents as shown by starch or sugar 
formation under the influence of the graft in certain cases. 

217. Reciprocal influence of stock and cion. — Daniel has dem- 
onstrated both direct and indirect influences of stock on cion in 
grafted ])lants. From his .experiments he deduces that variations 
in the graft may be due to changes in nutrition or may be specific; 
that is, they may appear in particular characters of stock and cion 
more or less independently of environment. The effects of graft- 
ing on the general nutrition mav be shown in four wavs. 




143— HANDY STYLE OF 
TREE CALIPER 



1 68 



PLANT PROPAGATION 




FIG. 144— WHY ROOT PRUNING IS DESIRABLE 

1. Roots of evergreen as ordinarily grown in nursery. 2. Dotted line shows 

where plant would be "dug with loss of roots. 3. Evergreen root pruned as 

shown at 2 but after new roots have developed. Such plants are well worth 
their extra cost. 



nANii:i."s i:xi'i:k]mi:xts and ioxci-L'Sions 1C9 

1. Tlie size of the vegetative organs of stock and cion may be 
modilied. It a herbaceous plant is grafted on itself, the general 
nutrition is interrupted in inverse proportion to the activity of the 
cambium layer at the time the operation is performed. The same 
principle applies in the case of grafts between different plants of 
the same variety. 

In the case of grafts between plants of different varieties, species 
or genera, the reciprocal reactions are much more complicated by 
the imperfect functional adaptations. In herbaceous grafts the 
callus has ihe same effect on the cion as would placing it in arid 
soil — it is dwarfed. In determining what species of the same 
order may be successfully grafted, similarity of habitat is of more 
importance than relationship. In the case of ligneous plants, geot- 
ropism (21!)) is a cause of variation, although this has generally 
been denied heretofore. It is also shown that a branch that has 
lost its negative geotropism does not always regain it if grafted on 
the main axis of the stock, at least in the case of the pear. 

2. The flavor of the edible parts, size, chemical coinposition or 
season of development, may be modilied. If the union is perfect, 
grafting in general produces a change of flavor in the edible parts 
of vegetative organs, either in the nature of improvement or de- 
terioration in (|uality. There is almost always a reduction in size 
of the part which sometimes fails entirely to develop in edible 
form. For the operation to have ])ractical interest, the diminution 
in size must be compensated by increase in quality. When the 
edible parts belong to the reproductive organs, grafting herbaceous 
plants may or may not cause the enlargement of the pericarp of 
fleshy fruits or of the seeds in dry fruits. There is no known prin- 
ciple of general application. The flavor of the fruit depends 
mainly on the completeness of the union and the quantity of sap 
the cion receives. This principle applies to ligneous and her- 
baceous plants alike. 

ii. The development of the reproductive organs of the cion may 
be accelerated or retarded. The flowering season of the cion may 
be affected very dift'erently, according as the plant is annual, bien- 
nial or perennial, according to the age and nature of the cion, 
and according to the kind of graft employed. Grafting may induce 
variation in the arrangement of flowers, in the season of opening 
or falling of the petals, or in their color. 

4. The relative resistance of stock and cion to parasites and 
other injurious organisms or substances may be modified. The 
principal parasites that attack grafts before the union is com- 
plete are molluscs, worms, sowbugs, insects and molds. These 
parasites may aft'cct stock and cion differently. The parasites 
that attack grafted plants after the union is complete, are in the 
order of the extent of their ravages, insects, myriapods, fungi, and 
otlicr vegetative parasites, and molluscs. The more imperfect the 
union of stock and cion, the more serious are the attacks: so 
much so that their extent and severity may be said to be a cri- 
terion of the degree of perfection of the syml)iosis. 



PLANT ri.;()i'A(;.\j loM 




FIG. 145— TREE DIGGER AT WORK IN PEAR NURSERY ROW 

Tlie digger passes under the nursery row and the trees are lifted and carried tp 
the packing or storage quarters 



DANIEL S KXPEKliMliMTS AND CONCLUSIONS 171 

218. Reasons for the above effects. — The tlieory by which Driiiiel 
seeks to explain these facts is in hrief as follows : The nutrition 
of stock and cion is modilied hy two causes which may act in the 
same or contrary directions. These are (1) the callus conse(|uent 
on the operation, and (2) the difference between the peculiar func- 
tional capacities of stock and cion, such as differences in structure, 
special diastases, differences in composition of tiie crude or the 
elaborated saps, etc. The phenomena pr xluced are dependent, not 
only on the nature of the plant, but intimately so on environment. 

From this theory certain conditions of success in grafting may 
be deduced. The protoplasm of stock and cion must not, as a 
result of the operation, be modilied beyond that definite point at 
which poisoning sets in or at which the essential properties of the 
living substance, as nutrition and motility, are destroyed. De- 
struction of the protoplasm may result from either of two causes : 
(1) action of plastic or waste products brought together suddenly, 
causing immediate poisoning or gradually causing slow poisoning. 
These products may give rise through mutual reactions to other 
injurious products. (2) Deficiency or excess of water in stock 
or cion consequent upon grafting. 

Daniel demonstrates the insufficiency of the hypothesis of 
relationship and that of similarity in composition of elaborated saps 
to account for the success of a graft or to explain its variations. 
He reports a large number of experiments, each illustrating a dif- 
ferent variation, produced directly by a mutual reaction of stock 
and cion. Specific variations differ much in degrees according to 
the nature of the plant and even according to the part of the 
cion. The principle applies alike to herbaceous and woody plants. 
Specific variations result in a more or less complete blending of 
the characters of stock and cion ; or more strictly, these char- 
acters appear side by side but separate and distinct. 

219. Geotropism, the tendency of plant parts to grow 
downward toward the center of the earth, as in ordinary 
roots. Negative geotropism (apogeotropism) is the 
growing away from the earth, as in ordinary stems. 

220. Transmission of grafted cnaracters by seed. — From certain 
experiments Daniel concludes that variations <luc to nutrition are 
in some cases transmitted l)y seed collected from the cion, even 
when no morphological changes are apparent in the cion itself. 
Such cases show that the immediate influence of stock on cion may 
be less than the indirect influence of the offspring of the cion. 
Seed grafts of wild carrot on the cultivated half-long red variety 
showed clearly such a mixture of the characters of stock and 
cion that the resulting plants might be considered true crosses or 
trraft hybrids produced by the influence of stock on embryo. 
These and similar experiments show also that by grafting a wild 
and a cultivated plant the former may be made to acquire delinite 
qualities which can be improved by selection. Experiments showed 



172 



I'LAXT I'RurAGATION 



also that these variations, which the experimenter classes as 
specific, are at least in certain cases transmitted by the seed. 

Daniel also concludes that grafts may influence the somato- 
plasm (223), though not always. In many plants the effect is often 
very slight, especially in woody plants in which the ligneous frame- 
work gives to the plant a much more fixed form than herbaceous 
plants possess. When this influence exists, it most often affects 
characters of little taxonomic importance, as height, vigor, etc., 
and then its influence is similar to that of environment; but it may 
sometimes affect the essential characters of varieties or species, 
such as external form, structure, etc., which become more or less 
blended into graft hybrids (228) or may disappear, giving place 
to new characters. Not only may the influence of the graft on the 
somatoplasm show itself directly in the grafted plants themselves, 
but it may produce an indirect reaction either parallel or not par- 
allel to the direct reaction, and new characters may develop in 
the offspring, proving that, contrary to Weismann's theory, acquired 
characters can be transmitted in the vegetable kingdom. 

From his theoretical considerations, Daniel deduces 
certain practical conclusions. \\'hen grafting does not 
modify the peculiar characters of a variety, but merely 
produces certain slight variations of nutrition, it may be 
employed to i)erpetuate varieties, races, 
or accidental forms of perennial plants ; 
Ijut if the influence of the graft on the 
somatoplasm is very marked and proves 
to be specific (which experiment alone 
can determine), it may be applied to the 
creation of new varieties. Here a new 
held of operation is opened up to seeds- 
men. 

There are numerous practical appli- 
cations of the reciprocal effect of stock 
and cion, such as increase in size of 
fruits, improvement of flavor of fruits 
and certain vegetables, production of 
new varieties in which color of flower, 
form of fruit, or vegetative organs are 
modified. The eft'ects of grafting are more 
w.re'protector marked in herbaceous than in woody 
AOAiNST MICE AND ,,i.,,-,|^ ;,,i,l a1st) uv nx" marked in the oh- 




DANIia/S KXl'l!:K]i\li:NTS AND CONCLUSIONS 



173 




FIG. 147— BUNDLES OF 
CIONS FOR SHIPMENT 



Spring- of the grafted plant than in the plant itself, draft- 
ing, as a means of retaining variations acquired under 
culture, is useful only in the case of trees, and difference 
between seedling fruit trees and varieties producing them 
(19J)) may be explained in part by the effect of grafting 
on the progeny of the grafted plants. 

Grafting which produces a var- 
iation in the seed may be used 
to produce new varieties. Since 
this variation can frequently be 
directed in a given way, it is pos- 
sible almost to a certainty by re- 
peated grafting to impart definite 
characteristics of flavor, form, color, etc., to plants which 
vary readily under culture. In other cases grafting may 
produce variations which, though hard to obtain, after 
once appearing-, may be directed definitely. 

221. Asexual hybridization — Formerly it was believed that 
grafted cions lost none of their own characteristics and acquired 
no new ones from the stocks on w-hich they were grafted, but the 
experiments of Daniel and other investigators indicate that these 
views must be modified. For Daniel has proved that hybrids pro- 
duced by grafting can be fixed and propagated true to kind, liut he 
draws the conclusion that asexual hybridization is neither con- 
stant, regular nor very frequent. In its results it is somewhat 
similar to cross pollination, but has a wider application, and the 
resulting forms are less constant in character. 

Grafting is not always a certain means of perpetuating variations, 
although it generally is. In itself it may occasion variation, which 
in turn may be fixed by grafting. In order to produce a given 
variation by grafting or to add to a plant a character it lacks, 
it is necessary to graft it on another plant which is superior to it 
in the quality sought. In grafting hybrid vines to secure a desired 
character, it is necessary to graft together two vines having 
common blood in such proportions that the sum of the blood of 
the characters desired shall be greater than the l)lood of any other 
strain in the graft. Modification in vines as regards eradication 
of the foxy flavor, increase in size of berry, resistance to exterior 
agents, etc., can thus be obtained. 

The problem of the French grape industry, Daniel declares, is 
to unite .American root resistance (to phylk)xera) to the French 
quality fruit. H% says this will probably be done, not by sexual 
hybridization alone, but by rational combination with asexual hy- 



174 



I'l.ANT PROPAGATION 




174 



i)Axii-;i, s i:xi'i:kimi:.\ rs and ioxci.l'sions 



'/:) 



hridization by grafting-, and then the preservation of the variation 
thus secured hj' budding. 

Asexual hybridization, according to him, sometimes operates 
directly upon the grafted plants, sometimes indirectly upon the 
descendants ; sometimes it affects external characters ; sometimes 
it causes a disjunction of previously blended characters; sometimes 
heredity and persistence are complete ; sometimes partial or lack- 
ing; often expected results can be secured. But the most impor- 
tant practical point is that in many cases grafting has served to 
insure systematic improvements of plants. Emphasis must be laid 
on his remark that 7\.'lici! a plant is to be i>iipro7'cd /» n certain re- 
spect, it ntnst he (jrafted on a stock superior in this respect. 

222. Germplasm, the coiitiiuiously living- substance of 
an organism. It is capable of reproducing both itself 
and the somatoplasm, or l)ody tissue, in giving rise to 
new individuals. It is the Substance, or Essence, or 
Life which is neither formed afresh, generation after 
generation, nor created or de^'eloped when sexual ma- 
turity is reached, but is present all the time as the 
potentiality of the individual, before birth and after death, 
as well as during that period we term "life" between 
these two events. The somatoplasm, on the other hand, 
has no such power. It can produce only its kind — the 
ephemeral, the perishable body or husk, which sooner or 
later completes its life cycle, dies and disintegrates. The 
germ])lasm. barring accident, is in a sense immortal. 

223. Somatoplasm, the body tissues as a whole. See- 
(iermplasm (222). 



CHAPTER XIII 

GENERAL POINTS CONCERNING FRUIT TREE 
STOCKS* 

224. Effects of stock on cion.— [With few exceptions] all fruit 
trees are consorts of two individuals, stock and cion. So far 
fruit growing has been carried on with little or no regard to their 
interactions. Yet there is no doubt that each reacts upon the other 
and that all grafted fruits are influenced for better or worse by the 
stocks upon which they are worked. To this fact those who have 
given the matter study now agree, though there is little accord in 
the explanations ofi'ered to account for the various effects. In 
short, about all we really know is that plants often get out of 
gear in the adjustment of cion to stock. Why and how, remain 
for the most part to be determined. 

Since we cannot find clear-cut analyses of the eff"ects of stock 
on cion, it is small wonder that fruit flowers give little attention 
to stocks. After centuries of fruit culture, we actually do not 
knt)w what the best stocks are for many fruits. Further to com- 
l)licate the situation, trees are profoundly modified by soil and 
climate, the modifications not infrequently being confused with 
those caused by the stock. Our fragmentary knowledge of stocks 
being thus a thing of shreds and patches, few are willing to break 
away from time-worn dictums, so continue to plant trees without 
attention to the reciprocal influences of stock and cion. Briefly, 
influences are as follows : 

225. Influences of tree fruit stock on cion. — i. Stock modifies 
form and size. Altered size and form of tree resulting from 
grafting cannot be said to be due wholly to diminished vigor and 
not at all to debility. Rather, the cion takes the size, form and 
somewhat the peculiarities in habit of growth of the stock. Thus, 
the scraggly Red Canada apple worked on Northern Spy assumes, 
somewhat, not wholly. Spy characteristics of growth ; pear on 
quince takes quince size; apple on Paradise or Doucin, the size 
and form of these stocks. Increased size rarely, if ever, occurs. 

2. Adaptability of species or variety to soil may be changed by 
stock. Peach when worked on plum may do well on heavy soils 
where on their own roots they would be worthless. Conversely, 
])lum can be adapted to light soils by working on peach, thriving 
still better on Myrobalan in most soils. Everything points to maz- 
zard rather than mahaleb for both sweet and sour cherries. Ninety- 

*Foot note: Paragraphs 224 to 233 are condensed from an address by Prof. U. 
P. Hedrick of New York, before the New York State Fruit Growers' Association. 

X76 



geni-:kai. points concerning fruit trer stocks 



177 



nine trcts mit of a liiimlrcd arc on inalKlcI) slock as tlicrc is less 
loss. LlicTiy on niazzard should cost twice as nuicii, hut is worth 
the price. Mahalel) is sometimes hetter than mazzard in shallow 
or wet soil. Possil)ly this is the most inportant intluence of stock 
on cion, for through it many fruits, which would not thrive, in 
some cases would not live, on their own roots, can he grown in 
unfavorahle soils. The use of stocks to overcome soil adversities 
demands much more attention than has heen given. 

3. Through the stock, plants may be made to endure incompatible 
climates. It would be too much to say that hardiness as an in- 
herent c|uality is transmitted from stock to cion, but it is very cer- 
tain that increase in vigor imparted by some stocks gives greater 
hardiness to grafted i)lants. In the case of late-growing apples 
worked on Hibernal or Oldenberg stocks greater hardiness results, 
because the cion matures earlier than it would upon its own roots 




FIG. 149— HEELING-IN TREES FOR WINTER STORAGE 



and is therefore better able to withstand the winter. Again, slight 
obstructions to the sap flow imposed more or less by union of dif- 
ferent tissues of stock and cion may cause the cion to ripen 
earlier and thus bring about greater hardiness. Some plants, as 
peach, must have a warm soil ; therefore, peach does better on plum 
in cold soils than on its own roots. 

4. Stocks, if diseased, may impart the disease to cions, as when 
peach stocks infested with peach yellows or "little peach" are budded 
with health}' buds. 

5. Productiveness of tree is often increased by stock, paradoxically 
enough, either by increasing or by decreasing plant vigor. Trees 
sometimes fail to fruit well because of too much wood growth, in 
which case grafting on less vigorous stocks checks growth and 
makes for productivity: thus w-e may explain the greater fruit- 
fulness of some dwarf apples and pears. On the other hand, a 
fruit may be too weak in growth to be fruitful, hence 
grafting on a stock which imparts vigor may make it more pro- 
ductive. 

6. Time of maturity of both wood and crop may be changed 
somewhat by stock — hastened on the one hand or retarded on the 



178 



PLANT I'ROl'ACAIION 



other, according to wlictlicr stock ripens earlier or later than 
cion. It follows, of course, that keeping ciualit}- is aftected in the 
same degree as maturit}'. From what is known on this subject we 
are warranted in saying that earliness is promoted only when the 
stock ripens its wood earlier than the cion; lateness, when the stock 
wood ripens later. 

7. Color of fruit may be changed by stock. There is little evi- 
dence to substantiate the claim that the characteristic color of a 
fruit is changed by the stock, but, as all know, color is heightened 
by earliness and lessened by lateness in the maturity of a variety. 
In cases, then, in which stock influences time of maturity, color 
may be more or less changed. 1 know of a Mcintosh orchard the 
fruit of which is much brighter in color and matures nearly two 
weeks earlier than Mcintosh on standard stocks, apparently because 
grafted upon Oldenburg stocks. 

8. Size of fruit is often increased by stock. I cite only pear on 
quince as an example. Many others might be adduced. 

9. Stock afifects eating qualities' of fruit on cion. Larger, crisper, 




FIG. 150— PEACH PIT PLANTER 

1. Natural wild peach pit; 2, Canning factory pit, not good for planting; 3, 
HoDoer of machine. Most nurserymen contend for the "natural" pit as against 
pits of cultivated varieties secured from canneries. 



(;i;.\i:k.\L i-oixrs coxc kk.x ixc i-urrr iki-.i-: s■n)c•K^ 



'79 




FIG. 151— GRAFT PLANTING 



juicier fruits uf a variety can lie .s^mun un sunie stncks tlian ou 
(>thers, making them more palatal)le. Sweetness and sourness de- 
pend on amount of sugar and acid; these, in turn, are influenced 
l)y health, vigor, time of maturity and nutrition, all of which are 
intlucnced I)y stock. A variety may, 
therefore, he sweeter or sourer on one 
stock than on another. There is noth- 
ing to show that flavor is changed. 

10. Some stocks shorten the life of 
the trees of which they are a part. 
Apples on pears and pears on apples 
are short-lived trees. Bartlett is short- 
lived when top- worked on Kieflfer. As 
a rule, grafting weak-growing species 
on vigorous stock shortens the tree 
life. 

226. Influence of grape stocks on cions. — Much more is known 
about influence of stock on cion in grape-growing than on tree 
fruits. To epitomize : Experimenters of established reputation 
hold that very appreciable differences may be noted between the 
chemical and the physical composition of grapes, grafted on various 
stocks and fruit of the same variety on its own roots. Among the 
effects claimed the following are quoted : Fruit of grafted vines 
is larger, has bigger seeds, thinner skin, berries are less numerous, 
juice is more copious, is usually both more acid and sugary, is 
less rich in phosphate, more highly charged with nitrogenous mat- 
ters, has little tannin, less color and the color is less stable; vines 
are more fruitful ; fruit ma- 
tures earlier. These differ- 
ences varj- in different cases. 
In an experiment with grape 
stock for American grapes 
carried on for eleven years 
at the New York station ma- 
terial differences were found 
between grafted and un- 
grafted vines, all included in 
the above summary. 

227. Influence of cion on 
stock — Cion in its turn has 
a decided influence on stock. 
For example, the form of 
roots is much changed by the 
cion. Thus, in starting ap- 
ples in a nursery we bud 
on seedlings which unbudded 
would ha\e root systems 
much the same, but at dig- 
ging time the roots of the -j-j^g knife cuts the roots at 12 to 18 inches 
various \arieties are as below the surface. 




FIG. 152— NURSERY TREE DIGGER 



\ 



1 80 



PLANT I'KOPAGATION 




FIG. 153— MOVING LARGE TREES 
L Estimate size of tree by that of man above center of picture. 2. Notice 
the tackle and the size of the man. 3. Sixteen horses were needed to haul this 
free. 



GHNICKAl. rcJlX'IS lt)M i:U\l.\(i FRUIT TKF.Ii STOCKS 



l8l 



(livLTsc as the varieties IIiliiiscKls ; Red Ablraelian, fur iiislaiue, 
lias an exceedinj^ly lihruus rmit sjstein witli few lap nxUs, uliilc 
Oldcnburj; and J'anieusc gR)\vn on either side of the Red Astrachan 
row, are almost destitute of root liltcrs, having instead deep tap roots 
v.iili two or three prongs. Nurserymen declare the weaker the 
top growth and the sparser the foliage of a variety, the more 
dei'ci'jnt is the root growth. 

228. Plant chimeras or "graft-hybrids." — To the general rule that 
stock and cion retain their identity there is a seeming exception in 
the pseudo-hybrids or plant chimeras of experimenters. When, after 
grafting, cion buds fail to grow and an adventitious bud arises at 
the junction of stock and cion, including cells from both parts, we 
have what for many years was known as a graft-hybrid, but is 
now more accurately called a plant 
chimera. In a case of this kind the 
cells from stock and cion reproduce 
themselves, sometimes the wood of one 
covering the other like a glove, or it 
may be the wood of the consorting 
pair grows side by side in parallel parts 
throughout the plant. These plant 
chimeras are more or less familiar in 
apples half sweet, the other half sour; 
or in which a portion of the apple is 
red or yellow and another russet. They 
are probably more often found in citrus 
fruits than in any others. It is pos- 
sible that the cells of two consorting 
parts do actually blend in some cases, 
forming a true hybrid. Not improbably 
some of the many so-called strains of fruit described by those 
seeking to improve plants liy Inid selection are plant chimeras. 

229. Explanations for reciprocal effects. — Plant physiology does 
not help us much in elucidating the inlluence of grafting. The- 
oretically, from the anatomy of plants, w'e can expect nothing more 
in grafting than the adhesion of graft to stock. The tissues below 
the union are those of the stock; above it, those of the cion. Yet 
there is some reason to suspect that definite substances pass from 
one to the other in the consorting parts of a grafted plant and 
produce specific effects. Thus, w-hen a cion with variegated 
foliage is grafted on a normal stock, shoots which spring from the 
stock below the graft are variegated. Or, if deadly nightshade be 
grafted on tomato, the poison, atropine, passes down into tomato 
root and stem. But curiously enough, if the variegated plant or 
the nightshade be used as a stock, variegation in one case and 
atropine in the other do not pass upward into the cions. 

An ingenious and not at all improbable reason for some of the 
influence of the stock upon the cion was offered in the I'Yench 
Academy of Science [by Le Clerc du Sablon]. The speaker had 




FIG. 154 — TRANSPLANT- 
ING IN LOOSE SOIL 



l82 



PLAXT I'ROl'ACA'l'lOX 



made analyses of i)car trees two years old from the graft on 
quince and pear stocks to determine the relative quantities of 
plant foods stored in the steins of the two sets of plants. It was 
found that during autumn and winter reserve matter was markedly 
more abundant in the stem on quince stock. In spring, therefore, 
the pear on quince was enabled to furnish more food matter for 
fruit formation and crop production was greatly increased. iVgain, 
reserve food in stems is nearer the fruit than in roots and is thus 
possibly more readily utilized. If these experiments are accurate 
we may find the best stocks are those whose roots store the least 
quantity of reserve-foods and so force the accumulation of re- 
serve matter in stems. 

Unquestionabh^ some effects of stock are due to altered nutri- 
tion — possibly to insufficient nutrition of stock or cion. Much evi- 
dence points to disturbance of nutrition as the chief cause of the 




FIG. 155— HERBACEOUS GRAFTING AND BUDDING 

I, herbaceous buds; 2, herbaceous grafts. Summer methods of propagating 
grapes on green canes. None of the herbaceous methods so far tested in California 
ha\e been veiy successful. 



effects of grafting. It may be that food elaborated by the foliage 
of the cion is different from that the stock would have had with 
its own foliage. It has been suggested that difference in specific 
gravity of stock and cion sap may be a disturbing factor. But 
these explanations are not sufiicient to cover all phenomena arising 
from grafting. Truth is we have for the most part only certain 
isolated facts to explain which we must rely upon inferences 
which have the greatest amount of probability in their favor from 
the knowledge of the case. It remains for someone to tell why. 
230. Why "nurserymen bud or graft trees. — Important though the 
effects of stock are on cions, any and all are but incidental to the 
true explanation for a two-part tree for practically all orchard 
plants. At the proper season in every nursery an army of expert 
workmen graft or bud so dexterously, precisely and rapidly that 
their work is little short of marvelous. What are the reasons for 



(ii'.Ni'.kAi, roiNis coxt'i-.ux i.\(; i-'i<rii' '\\<]:e s'iocks 1S3 

all this srrniiiiLily extra wurk (if .ni'iil'tini; ? W liy dt) iidt mirscTN - 
men sell us plants on their own roots? in no otiier way can fruit 
trees true Ui name he i)ropai;ate(l so rapidly- In some cases there 
is no other possible method of multiplying; a variety. Unfortunately, 
the stocks chielly chosen by nurserjnnen are those which can be 
worked most easily and soonest give a presentable nursery tree. 
[.\s a rule the seedlings of a species make the liest stocks for that 
species. 1 bruit growers, if they give the matter thought, choose 
stocks that do not sucker, or that best suit their soil and in a few- 
cases one that will give a dwarf tree. .Ml other effects of stock 
on cion are ignored by both nurseryman and fruit grower. 

It does not follow, however, that whatsoever stock one wants 
can be used. Even when kinshi)) is close some plants resist all 
ai)pliances of art to make a successful union, wdiile some distinct 
species of fruits seem foreordained to be joined. Thus, a 
pear will not grow well on an apple nor an apple on a ])ear, 
closely related though thc}^ are ; but the pear readily unites with 
([uince and hawthorn. So, too, peach and apricot are grafted on 
each other only with difficulty, but both readilj' unite with almond 
and plum. Sweet and sour cherries grow well on mahaleb cherry, 
but mahaleb will not grow on any of the cultivated cherries- 
Sour cherries upon sweet ones succeed less well than the latter on 
the former. The gooseberry will not grow on red currant, but 
thrives on black currant. 

Something more is necessary, then, than botanical kinship, but 
just what no one knows beyond, of course, the knowledge that 
there must be some conformity in habit between stock and cion; 
that the two must start in growth at approximately the same time; 
and that the tissues must be sufficiently abke that there be proper 
contact in the union. Yet these facts do not sufficiently explain the 
affinities and antipathies which plants show. Thus, the propagator 
has little to guide him in selecting stocks and can choose only 
after making repeated trials, near relationship being the only 
guide, even though often an untrustworthy one. 

231. Influence of stock propagation method. — Xot only are 
grafted plants affected by kind of stock used, but also by manner of 
propagating stocks, whether from seed or from cuttings. There 
is no question, for example, that stocks propagated by cuttings do 
not produce the deep tap and prong roots that seedlings do. Again, 
seedlings lifted and root-pruned the season before budded or 
grafted have thicker root systems than if not so transplanted. 

It seems necessary, therefore, to say that for the best interests 
of fruit-growing we cannot neglect the wa}' in which stocks are 
grown. Undoubtedly for some conditions we shall find stocks from 
cuttings preferable ; under others, and generally, seedlings will be 
better when we have a choice. So too, usuall3% when nursery prac- 
tice i)crmits, a stock is better for having been transplanted before 
buclding or grafting. 

232. Pedigreed trees.— The selection of stocks leads straight to 
the center of another problem. We hear much about the in- 



1 84 



PLANT rROPAGATION 



(lividualily nf nrclianl trees and the necessity of propagating froi ] 
individuals having the ))esl characters. The speaker does not hc- 
hevc in "pedigreed trees", fnuHng but Httle in either theory or fact 
to sul)stantiate the chiim of those who beheve they can improve 
varieties by bud selection. The multitude of trees in any variety, 
all from one seed, it seems paradoxical to say, are morphologically 
one individual. A plant variety propagated by buds is essentially 
complete in its heredity. How, then, can the difference between 
individual plants in every orchard be explained? 

Ample explanation is found in "nurture" without invoking a 
change in "nature." Soil, sunlight, moisture, insects, disease — and, 
more than any of these, the stock — give every individual plant an 




FIG. 156— HAND METHOD OF PLANTING NURSERY STOCK 
Two men work to better advantage than one alone. 



environment of its own from which come characters which appear 
and disappear with the individual. Thus, it is believed, we can 
bend a variety by means of a stock, but not that we can permanently 
mold it into any new form given it by a stock. Let go the force, 
whatever it may be, which bends the variety and it snaps back into 
its same old self. 

233. Necessity for stock breeding. — In the coming refinement of 
fruit growing we must breed st(Kd<s as we now do varieties they 
support. The stocks of all tree fruits are supposed to be seedlings 
of cultivated varieties. Yet only a cursory investigation at home 
or abroad shows that seed frotn cider presses and stone fruit pits 
from canneries are commonly used in growing nursery stocks. 
Under present methods it is mere chance as to whether one gets 
a tree on a good, or a bad plant on any stock. Would it not be 
a safe stroke of business for a nurseryman to select his stocks and 
through his catalogue educate fruit growers as to the greater 
value of trees on good stocks? 




(iRAPli GRAITINC 



1, rooted stock vines; 2, grafts in inverted order, readin}; right to left: cion, 
stock (two specimens of each) parts fitted, completed graft. 3, rooted cions. 
The roots produced above the labels are from the cions. They should be destroyed. 

185 



l86 ■ PLANT I'UUI'AGATION 

234. Pedigreed trees again (see 2:J2). J. P. Stewart discusses 
this question in a recent bulletin, condensed as follows : 

Various theories of observation have been advanced, but only a 
few experiments conducted. The net results of observation and 
discussion, however, have shown merely that important variations 
do exist among mature apple trees, in almost any direction desired, 
but thus far none of the variations within a variety, with the 
apparent exception of color, have been actually proved to be herit- 
able. In addition the most fundamental and generally accepted 
theories are all against such inheritance, without excepting color. 

With this situation in view, a preliminary test was started at the 
Pennsylvania Experiment Station on the influence of cion selection 
in improving yields. The individual trees were chosen merely on 
the recommendation of commercial growers, for the most part, 
and without any definite and comparative records covering several 
years — the only satisfactory basis for making the primary de- 
termination of what are really superior individuals. This defect is 
being remedied in another more comprehensive test recently started. 
In the present test cions from supposedly superior individuals were 
top grafted chiefly on Northern Spy stock. Ordinary nursery trees 
of the same variety were planted alongside for comparison. 

It is much too early to draw conclusions from this work, but 
the results to the close of the seventh year indicate that in four 
of eight varieties, a slight superiority is shown by the trees pro- 
duced from the selected cions. In three varieties no advantage is 
shown in either group, although the cions for these trees were 
secured from one of the most prominent advocates of the practice ; 
in the eighth a slight difference favors the nursery trees. 

The results are evidently insufficient either to approve or con- 
demn the practice of cion selection. Such trees may have more 
certainty of trueness to name where the cions have come recently 
from the pure trees of known bearing habits, and one is naturally 
on the safe side of the question in using them, when they can be 
obtained without material difference in price. This, however, is all 
that can be said at present in favor of the practice so far as apples 
are concerned. Much more data are needed. 

235. Stocks in top-grafting. — In case experiments 
.should definitely prove cion selection to be advisable, it 
may be well to know something- of the relative values of 
various stocks available for tc^ji-g-raftino-. It seems also 
that some desirable \-arieties should regularly be to])- 
g-rafted to secure better and healthier tnnd<s. To secure 
data on the relative merits of certain well-known varieties 
for stock purposes, a test has been started at the Pennsyl- 
vania station, using four trees each of three varieties top- 
grafted on five different stocks. Stewart's progress re- 



GK.NKKAi, ruiNTS conc1':kmng FKriT tui:k stocks 



187 



port is soniewliat condensed from a recent bulletin as 
follows : 

One rather unexpected result so far is that in all cases except 
one (Wolf River) the trees ti)])-grafte(l on known stocks have 
made a hetter average growth than those grafted on seedling roots 
in the nursery. All top-grafted (Crimes trees are also in the lead. 
Among the various stocks, trees developed on Paragon are distinctly 
in the lead, with those on Tolman second. With Grimes and 
Tompkins King, the only varieties of these three that really need 
top-grafting, the superiority of these two stocks is very marked so 
far as growth is concerned. In smoothness of unions, Tolman 
and Champion are probably best, with Paragon next, if the top- 
grafts with Jonathan be excepted, as with that variety the Paragon 
stock has tended to cutgrow the cions. Incidentally, the reverse is 
the case with Grimes on Wolf River. 




15s— NEGRO WOMEN ARE I ARGEIY EMPLOYED IN SOUTHERN 
NURSERIES 



Northern .Spy stock has averaged third in growth and is nfnv 
running about equal to Paragon in unions. It also usually makes 
an excellent trunk and root system, but in at least one respect it is 
considerably less desirable than either Tolman, or Paragon for 
stock purposes; namely, in its unusual tardiness in starting growth 
in spring. This tends to make the cions more active than the 
stocks of most varieties, naturally the reverse of the condition 
desired when grafts are being started. Vrnm present results, 
therefore, either Paragon or Tolman appears to be distinctly pref- 
erable to any of the others, for Griiues at least— Champion third, 
if Jonathan grafts are omitted. 

Samuel Fraser of Geneseo, N. ^^, finds that Twenty-Ounce top- 
grafted on P)aldwin makes HO to l()() ])er cent better trees in five to 
eight years than when worked on Northern Spy. Similarly, Wealthy 
does poorly on Rhode Island Greening, while the latter does well 
on Wealthy. Hubbardston cions grafted on Ben Davis, Northern 



1 88 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



Spy and Tolman resulted in such peculiar changes in twig color — 
some becoming red, some purple, etc. — that they could not be used 
with safety for further cion wood until they had proved their 
identity by coming into bearing. 

These and similar facts indicate that many common variations 
in size and vigor so frequently shown by the same variety of tree, 






FRENCH 
SEEDLl NGS 



WHOLE ROOT 
GRAFT.S 



FIG. 159— STAGES IN GRAFTED APPLE TREE PRODUCTION 

Notice that the finished trees are "whips." These are what commercial 
planters are largely preferring to two year trees because they allow the head to 
be formed at any height and they grow better than the older trees. 



(■.EM:UAL I'OINTS CONCERN INc; FULMT I KKli STOCKS 189 

l)oth in nursery and later growth, are clue to differences in con- 
geniality between the cions and the variable seedling stocks. 

236. Hardy stocks for tender varieties. — At the Canadian ex- 
periment farms 'JO varieties of apples were top-grafted on hardy 
stocks to see if they could thus be made hardy, but practically all 
were killed hack to the stocks. One Wealthy stock grafted to 
Milwaukee and Martha carried the former through a very severe 
winter and matured a crop of fruit, while the latter was killed. 
Hence the conclusion : Trees tender on their own roots are also 
tender on hardy stocks. 

237. Slow-maturing stocks (Northern Spy), according to Gulley 
of Connecticut, do not delay the fruiting of quick-maturing 
varieties (Jonathan and Canada Red). 

238. Quince effect on pear. — Two I-'rench investigators, G. 
Reviere and G. Bailhacke, tested the effects of stock upon cion 
of two pear trees of one variety upon quince and pear stocks 
respectively. The trees were 15 years old and had grown under 
apparently identical conditions. For three successive seasons the 
fruits were collected ; samples were analyzed, etc. Each bore about 
oOO fruits annually. Those on the pear stock were green, those on 
quince yellow with a rose blush on the sunny side. The average 
weight, density, acidity and sugar content were in favor of the 
(|uince stock. Observations on another variety tallied with these 
findings. The differences are attributed to greater activity of the 
chlorophyll in the quince case. 

239. Hardness and softness of wood in apple grafting. — E. 
Leroux, a French investigator, has concluded from experiments with 
200 varieties of cider apples that (1) varieties with tender wood can 
1)e most successfully grafted on tender-wooded varieties and hard- 
wooded on hard-wooded; (2) success follows only rarely when a 
tender-wooded one is grafted on a hard-wooded one; (3) success 
seldom or never follows when a variety with hard wood is grafted 
on a soft-wooded stock. These principles are believed to apply to 
other orchard fruits. 

240. Effect of small growing stock on cion. — -Booth re- 
ports an instance in which peaches on Mariana pknn stocks 
grew fairly well for two years, though from the start the 
peaches grew much more rapidly than the plums, so the 
peach trunks were at two years twice as large at the 
union as below. During the second season the weather 
was very hot and dry, and tlie peach trees after wilting 
for several days but reviving during the night, finally 
dried out and died, evidently because sufficient moisture 
was not furnished by the slow-growing Mariana roots to 
meet the demand from the peach leaves during a period of 



190 



I'LAXT I'ROPAGATION 



excessive transpiration. "While such an instance is un- 
common, there is but little question that the amount of 
growth will always be lessened, the life of the plant will 
be shortened and it will withstand adverse conditions less 
readily when the stock plant is noticeably slower in 
growth than the cion [ilant."' 

241. Pears on apple stocks. — A writer in American Gardening 
claims to have grown Flemish Beauty pears on Wagner apple 
stocks. The pears were larger and of finer flavor than those on the 
mother pear tree and were free from brown specks. The grafts 
bore ever}' year for six years without a break, while the mother 
tree failed some years and the apple tree bore only biennially. 

Camperdown, a weeping elm, when grafted on European elm 
(Ulnius scabra) stocks "weeps" from the point of union, the top 
being more or less flat at first ; but when grafted on American elm 
(U. Americana), it grows upright and very tall, because the vigor 
of this stock overcomes the weeping habit to a large extent. 




FIG. 160— LARGE TREES ARE CONVENIENTLY HANDLED BY TRUCK 



CHAPTER XIV 
STOCK AND CION HANDLING 

242. Own-rooted trees are those produced either from 
seed, cutting's or otherwise than grafting or budding, so 
they have roots of the same wood as their trunks. 
Grafted and l)ud(Ied trees are said to become "own- 
rooted" when they ha\e developed roots from the cion 
above the union and the stock ceases to function. 
Grafted grapes, roses and other plants often become own 
rooted in the same way. In certain cases it may be an 
advantage for grafted trees to become own-rooted, as in 
the northwestern states, where the winters are severe 
and only hardy roots can withstand the rigors. In other 
cases it is a disadvantage ; fcir instance, dwarfs Avhich 
would thus become standards. Again, if own roots are 
allowed to grow on cions of European grape grafted on 
])hylloxera-resistant American stocks, the vines would be 
as open to attacks of this insect (280) as if not grafted. 

243. Standard is a term applied to trees wdiich grow the 
full, normal size of the species ui^on their own roots or 
the roots of a stock which docs not dwarf them. 

244. The production of seedlings is a branch of the 
nurser}- business for the most part in the hands of special- 
ists who sell their product to other nurserymen for bud- 
ding and grafting. The former men usually are not con- 
cerned with the work of the latter and \ice versa. 

245. Apple seedlings tn he used as stocks require a deep, fertile 
soil sucli as tliat in tlic Kaw Valley of Kansas, where the rich 
hlack earth produces long, straight, plump tap roots. Hard, 
gravelly and shallow soils over hardpan contort the tap root and 
produce branches, thus spoiling the seedlings for stock purposes. 
Long, plump, unbranched tap roots make two or three or even four 
stocks. The ground is deeply plowed and loosened to 10 inches if 
possible, preferably in the fall, so it may be worked at the earliest 
possible moment in spring. 

191 



iy2 



PLANT rROI'AGATION 



The seeds stratified (49) over winter, or imported in late 
Vvinter, soaked for three days with changes of water twice daily 
and then stored between ice cakes in canvas bags, are sown as soon 
as the ground can be handled. This is essential because they sprout 
at a very low temperature; and to sow sprouted seed means a poor 
stand of plants. Rows are made three or four feet apart, the seeds 
dropped an inch asunder and covered an inch or less deep. In wet 
land, rotted sandy compost or other loose material is often used. 
Cultivation is the same as for garden vegetables. When the leaves 
have dropped in the fall, the seedlings are dug with special imple- 
ments, which save nine to twelve inches of root. Part of the top 
is usually cut off, the seedlings tied in bundles of 100 and stored in 
green sawdust till needed. 




FIG. 161— SPADING IN NURSERY STOCK 



246. Apple stocks. — For standard apples French crab 
and V^ermont oral) seedlings are most popular; for dwarf 
and semi-dwarf apples, Frencli Paradise and Doucin 
trees respectively, grown mainly by means of stools ; that 
is, mound layers. Of all these, French crab is most pop- 
ular in America. Some nurserymen import the seed and 
grow their own seedlings, others Ijuv abroad whenever 
they can get suitable material ; still others have formed a 
company which grows the stock in France and distributes 
the product to its members. Immense quantities of stock 
are grown in the central western United States, nota1:)ly 
Kansas, and sold to nurserymen for root grafting. Both 
French and Vermont seeds are used. 

247. French crab stock defined. — French crab seed is 
■produced by the natural or wild apples used in France 



STOCK AND ClON ITANOLING 



103 



for cider making-. Seeds from culliYatcd apple trees arc 
considered inferior and when mixed with wiUl crab seeds 
reduce the value of the sample. The seed, washed from 
the pomace at cider mills and on -farms, is dried in the 
open air. Normandy is the leading source of the seed. 

In early winter the nurserymen mix the newly secured 
seed with sifted river sand and store the boxes in shel- 
tered places, such as stables and outhouses, care being- 
taken to prevent attacks of 
mice. The sand, kept moist, 
is stirred occasionally. 
^^'hen the seeds begin to 
swell (in about a month), 
they are either placed in 
cold frames or sown in the 
field. In the former case 
the seedlings are trans- 
planted. Three or four 
weeks are needed for ger- 
.nination. Lukewarm water, 
used by some growers, has- 
tens germination, but is 
considered inexpedient by 
many. Some growers soak 
the seed 48 hours before 
planting, but the plan is 
not widely popular. It is 
used only when the season 
is precocious and hastened 
germination seems neces- 
sary. 

French layers (Fig. 55) of Doucin and Paradise apples 
are cut from the parent plants in the fall and either sold 
that season in spite of their small roots or they are trans- 
|)lanted and grown in nursery rows the following yenr to 
make vigorous plants. The latter cost more. 

248. Vermont crab stocks are grown from seeds gath- 




FIG. 162— FIRST PRUNING 
BUDDED TREE 

Stock top and pruners in center, 
tree at right. 



OF 



Budded 



T94 



rr.Ax 



I'UOl'ACATTOX 



Mm 



cred at New England cider mills. Formerly most of the 
apples used were apparently seedlings. Init seed of culti- 
Aated varieties has been finding its way into the commer- 
cial seed in increasing quantities, due to the dying of 
seedling trees and the increase of cultivated varieties, 
the culls of which are used for cider. Seedling growers 
are of opinion that stronger stock trees can be grown 
from seedling than from budded or grafted trees. Hence 

\^ermont seed is losing its 
reputation, partly on this 
account and partly because 
the seed comes more and 
more from decrepit trees 
and cull fruit. At the 
present writing most Ver- 
mont seed is used in the 
Northern and the Western 
states, while French seed 
dominates the middle A\'est 
and the East. 

249. Paradise and Dou- 
cin stocks for dwarf trees 
(252) are at present of 
small importance in Amer- 
ica, because dwarf trees 
have here not come into 
anything like the promi- 
nence they play in Europe, 
but the demand for them 
is increasing, more espe- 
cially in New England. 

250. Securing apple seed. — 

In growing apple trees Hansen 
of South Dakota has found that 
the seed should be separated 
from cider pomace before plant- 
ing, since fermentation acts in- 
juriously. Clean seed washed 




163— STREET TREE 
TIONS 



SPECIFICA- 



A, character of top; B, height 
of lowest branch; C, character of 
trunk; D, burlap to prevent barking; E, 
wire netting protector; F, stake to 
hold tree till established; G, char- 
acter of roots. 



STOCK AM) ciox iiAxni.ixc; T95 

from pomace within :.'4 hours of ijrcssin.;;' shoiihl he 
spread out to dry for a da.v or two, then mixed with moist sand 
and l)uried in well-drained sites in small boxes witli holes in the 
bottoms for drainage, and left over winter. He has been most suc- 
cessful when the seeds were planted in beds four feet wide, sur- 
rounded by 12-inch boards and given lath screen shade as soon as the 
seedlings begin to appear. 

251. Dwarf apples. — Hedrick of the New York State 
station reports a ten-year experiment with dwarf apples. 
That part of the summary which deals mainly with the 
results of propagation is slightly condensed thus: 

The results show : 1. That the union l:etween stock and cion is 
po.)rcr with Doucin and French Paradise and with b'rench Crab, 
and that varieties unite less well on J'Vench Paradise than on 
Doucin stocks. 3. Doucin and French Paradise stocks are less 
hardy than French Crab; and of the two dwarfs. French Paradise 
is much less hardy. 3. The greatest weakness of dwarfing stock 
for New York is surface-ro'ting, in which character the two 
stocks cannot be distinguished. Evil results following surface 
rooting are winterkilling, uprooting of trees by w-ind, suckering and 
injury in cultivation. 4. Suckers from both dwarfing stocks prove 
much more troublesome than with standard trees. 5. Trees on 
the three stocks attained the size commfmly ascribed to them; those 
on French Crab, full size; on Doucin half dwarf; on French 
Paradise, true dwarf. In this test the dwarfing effect of dwarf 
stock is not as marked as is commonh^ reputed. 

252. Dwarfing trees to be grown in the open requires 
that cions or buds be worked on slow-growing stocks and 
later headed in. Plants may also be dwarfed bv growing 
them in confined quarters, stich as l)oxes, tubs and pots 
too small for their normal development. Nurserymen can 
go no further than supplying the specimens ; after care 
depends upon the grower, who by neglect or ignorance 
may develop standards from those intended to be dwarfs. 

When grafted or budded "dwarfs" are planted so 
deeply that roots are developed b\- the cion above the 
tinion with the stock, the tree will become "half dwarf" 
or even "standard." Such roots must be cut off from 
time to time as they develop. Dwarf cherries are grown 
on mahaleb stocks, but so are probably the majority of 
standard cherry trees. Annual removal of roots from the 
cion and heading-in will kec]) the trees dwarf in habit. 



196 JT-Wr PROPAGATION 

So, too, of plums u])(jn myrobalan, and ai)p]es upon Para- 
disc and Doucin stocks. 

253. Quince stocks of an inferior crdcr are grown from 
seed. Large quantities of good ones are produced l)y 
stoctls or mound layers (94), but the great bulk is now- 
grown from cuttings, especially in the neighborhood of 
Angers, France. Nurserymen who have tried other 
stocks give this the preference. Dwarf pears are more 
often budded than grafted on quince stocks. 

254. Pear on quince produces larger fruits and liisser yields than 
on i)ear stock. LcC'lerc du Sablon attributes these phenomena to 
the greater accunuilation and reserve food during fall and winter 
in the trunk and litnhs of the pear-quince union. This food in 
spring helps form fruits in larger quantity and of greater size. 
No reason is assigned for the larger starch accumulation. 

255. Kieffer pear is so strong a grower that attempts to dwarf it 
result either in the cion taking root, thus making the tree a standard, 
or in the top outgrowing the stock so much that the union, being 
poor, the tree easily breaks off. 

256. Double working is sometimes employed to make a 
straight tree instead of a straggling one (Winter Nelis 
pear) or to give vigor to one that grows weakly or poorly 
(King and Grimes apples — subject to collar rot). The 
strong grower is first grown upon a seedling stock, and 
when old enough grafted or budded with the desired 
variety, thus performing two graftage operations and 
having three different kinds of wood — that from the 
seedling, and that from the second bud or cion upon the 
first. Generally the first cion is allowed to grow a year 
before the second is grafted on it ; but sometimes when 
the "sandwich" of intermediate wood is to be short, as 
with ])ears, both are set together; that is, a cion of the 
desired variety is grafted in the cion which is to produce 
the intermediate wood, and this one then inserted in the 
seedling stock. Considerable skill in grafting is needed 
to offset the extra risk of failure by this plan. 

The trees most often double worked are probably 
pears, some of which do not form good direct unions with 
quince stocks, and which must therefore have a go-be- 



STOCK AXI) CKIN IIANDLFNG 



197 



twccn sl(ii-k wliicli docs make a jj^-ood union, hotli with 
them and vvilli c|uince. Amonj^- varieties usually treated 
tiiis way, the followinj^;' are perhaps best known: P>()sc. 
Winter Nelis, Sheldon. Washington, Marie Louise. ( ian- 
sel's Bergamot, Josephin de Malines, Dix, nunmore and 
['aradise. These are 
worked on one of the 
\aricties that do make 
better unions on riuinre 
than on pear; for in- 
stance, A n g o u 1 e m e. 
Louise Bonne. \^icar, 
Cdout Morceau, Raster. 
Diel. Amalis and Au- 
tumn Long Green. ^ Al- 
ways in double working 
dwarf pears both opera- 
tions must be as near the 
ground as possible, so 
only an inch or two of 
the first pear wood shall 
be left when the double 
work is complete. Popu- 
lar apple "go-betweens" 
are Northern Spy. Tol- 
man, Ben Davis and 
Delicious Amonjr nlums '■'G- i64-trimming an ornamental 

I -Ombard is perhaps ^1^;^ j^^^ ^^y |,e sold when 25 or 30 feet tall. 

most in favor. 

257. Origin of pear stocks. — Pear seed is secured in 
France from the perry (pear cider) ])resses. It is several 
times as expensive as apple seed, because each seed must 
be picked from the core by hand. Most pear stocks used 
in America are grown in France. Our nurserymen jire- 
fer them because thev are started in seed beds and trans- 
])lanted while still small. This tends to make their roots 




198 



TLA XT rROPAGATION 



branch and to make them superior to untransplanted 
stock, both for budding and grafting. Many American 
nurserymen consider Japanese stocks stronger than 
French ones, but French nurserymen won't use them 
because fruit growers there are prejudiced against them. 
Some pear seed, chiefly from Kieft'er trees, is collected in 
Maryland, Delaware and New Jersey canneries and used 

in the United States, but 
nurserymen consider 

seed from Japan to be 
l)etter. Though most of 
the Japanese pear seed- 
lings are imported from 
Japan, some arrive from 
Holland and France. 

258. Pear propagation. 
—Standard pears are 
generally propagated by 
whip grafting (305) on 
whole stocks at the 
crown. Only a small part 
of the lower end of the 
tap root is cut off. The 
cion is shorter than in 
most apple grafting — 
about four inches. Wax- 
ing is necessary. When 

These are about 9 inches Ions, the most . i^ • • J^,,p I'nrlnorQ nnrl 
convenient length for handling l^l^ls IS QOUe mcioors, and 

when the wood is fairly 
warm, injury from the warm wax is avoided by dropping 
the grafts as waxed into cold water, after which they are 
made into bundles and stored like apple-root grafts. 
Greater care is needed in planting because of their length. 
Larger percentages of these grafts will grow than would 
in the case of ordinary root grafts in which the loss is 
counted at about 50 per cent. 




FIG. 165— BUNDLE OF WHOLE ROOT 
GRAFTS 



STOCK AM) CIOX IIAXDI.IXO 



199 



259. Spring-budding pears. — in Marylaml Japanese seedling 
pear stocks were placed in a hotl)ed in early April in six inches of 
sand. The manure and sun heat made the sap start so tliat in eight 
days the stocks were ready, to 1)ud by the orcHnary method. They 
were taken to a warm room, budded with Mikado pear buds and 
idaced back in the sand to "take." In about eight more days, all 
liaving taken nicely, they were transferred to damp sawdust to 
l)revent further growth till they could be set in the nursery a few 
days later. During summer, under good culture, they grew about 
two feet, and by fall were large enough tg transplant in orchards. 
The method is practica])le on a large scale. 

260 Peach stocks are secured from .seeds ustially strati- 
fied the previous winter and sown in spring. Seerl con- 
sidered best comes from seedling trees in the mountain- 
ous parts of the Carolinas and adjacent states, ( )klahoma 
and Arkansas. Pits from the canneries are not favored 
In' some nurserymen. Init are extensixcly used by others. 

Pits are sometimes planted in fall 
in nursery rows, but since seedlings 
may have difficulty in breaking 
through the soil in si)ring, this 
plan is not generally ])opular. Usual- 
ly the pits are stratified as soon as 
received in fall or early winter, the 
object being to have them freeze 
and split. On a small scale stratify- 
ing may be in shallow boxes of sand 
or soil, but, on a large scale, basin- 
like pits large enough to hold several 
])ushels are made in soil. Earth is 
thrown over the seeds and kept 
moist or frozen all winter. If planted 
without being stratified only a small 
])ercentage of seeds will sprout the first season, the bal- 
ance continuing the following year or two. 

261. Plum stocks. — Nurserymen dififer widely in their 
preferences of plum stocks, depending mainly on cost, 
ease of working, and adaptability of cion to stock. 
Myrobalan is the leading general purpose stock, though 




FIG. 166 — GRAFTED 

CHESTNUT BEARING AT 

TWO YEARS 



200 I'LAXT PROPAGATION 

Japanese and peach are often preferred for sandy soils, 
Americana for American varieties and St. Julien, though 
costly, for Domestica and Insititia. Mariana is still 
used in the central southwest, but in most other sections 
is unpopular because it makes poor unions. 

In Europe, myrobalan is considered a dwarfing stock 
which produces short-lived trees; in America it is widely 
preferred because it produces larger and liner two-year 
trees than do other stocks. In the South, however, it 
suckers badly, and in the prairie states it winterkills. 
Its cheapness, ease of budding and general perfection of 
unions are strong points. Because of its variability there 
are many "true" and "false" mybrobalans among nursery- 
men. Formerly stocks in France were grown from cut- 
tings ; now apparently from seed. 

St. Julien has been claimed to produce longer-lived, 
thriftier, hardier, deeper-feeding trees which sprout less 
than those on other stocks ; but its cost, hardness to bud, 
poor growth and liability to fungi in the nursery are 
against it. Horse plum is now "wholly superseded." 

Peach is largely used for many varieties of plum to 
grow on warm, sandy or gravelly soils. It conduces to 
quick growth and early bearing and the roots produce no 
sprouts. Budding is easy, the trees make vigorous 
nursery growth, probably at less cost than on any other 
stock. Japanese varieties do especially well on peach. 
For Domestica and Insititia varieties it is not so valuable 
because of poor unions and tender roots. Varieties said 
not to unite well Avith peach are: Lombard, Damson, 
Yellow Egg and Washington. Peach borers are some- 
times trouljlesome on peach stocks. 

Mariana appeals more to nurserymen than to fruit 
growers, because it readily strikes roots from cuttings, 
and nursery growth is ideal. Growers favor it less than 
formerlv, and it is declining in popularity because it has a 
dwarfing efifect and is prone to sucker. 

Americana seedlings are the onlv ones that will with- 




STOCK AND ClON HANDLING 20I 

Stand the rigorous northwest winters. They are used 
only for native varieties. It is not known how success- 
fully other plums can be grown on them, though \V. & T. 
Smith of Geneva, N. Y., report their use as satisfactory. 
As yet they are expensive, so they are not likely soon to 
compete with myrobalan and peach stocks. Their chief 
fault is their suckering habit. 

Munsonia is reputed to be "pre-eminently adapted for 
low, wet lands." Kerr believes P. hortulana excellent 
because it never suckers. P. Angustifolia, var. IVatsoni 
])romises to be a dwarfing species, P. bcssyi, according to 
Hansen, also dwarfs varieties worked on it, but is hardy 




FIG. 167— "SPROUTING" BUDDED NURSERY STOCK 

Men standing are foremen; men kneeling are removing all branches except th; bud 

shoots. 

and produces precocious and prolific trees. For top- 
working Domestica, Lombard is probably best. 
The sooner done the better because slow and crooked 
growth is common with late working. Early spring 
grafting and late summer budding are best. 

262. Cherry stocks. =■= — Despite the antiquity and the im- 
portance of the cherry, the question of stocks is un- 
settled. Fruit growers favor mazzard ; nurserymen, 
mahaleb, which they consider fit, at least, for sweet, and 
best for sour kinds. Further, they say it is impossible to 
grow cherries on mazzard at prices fruit growers are 

♦SynoDsized from The Cherries of New York by Hedrick. 



202 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



willing to pay. No systematic attempts have been made 
to settle the controversy. 

The mazzard or wild sweet cherry (Prumis avium), 
used for centuries as a stock, grows 30 to 40 feet tall with 
trunks often 18 inches in diameter. In America it is 
tender to cold, but grows vigorously. Its seedlings, im- 
ported from France, are badly attacked in nurseries by 
fungi, but it produces uniform trees and fruit. 

Mahaleb (Pntiuts mahalcb) is a thick, slender-branched 
bush with inedible fruits, differing markedly from both 
sweet and sour cherries. The wood structure "one 




FIG. 168— THREE UNUSUAL STYLES OF GRAFTING 

A, bow grafting of vine; a, cion; b, ligature to increase pressure of cion to 
stock-' c tiglitly wound ligature to check sap flow; d, e, slits for insertion of 
cion. ' B,' saddle graft: f, stock; g, cion; h, parts fitted together; C, veneer graft; 
i, stock; j, cion; k, parts fitted and tied; 1, graft after union. 

would expect to differ very materially" from that of 
sweet and sour cherries so that even if the union proved 
normal there would be difficulty in the passage of solu- 
tions between stock and cion. this cherry is propagated 
almost wholly from seed, though it may easily be grown 
from layers, cuttings and suckers. The American supply 
comes from P'rance. Mahaleb seems to have been used 
in the United States since abtuu 1850, first as a dwarfing 



STOCK AAM) eiOX ! I AN I )L IXC. 



203 



Stock l)Ut now for all purposes. I'robably 9") per cent i>l' 
our cherries are budded on it. W'h}? 

Doubtless it is easier to make better-looking nursery 
trees on mahaleb than on mazzard, and it is cheaper. 
Mazzard has the faults of its s]iecies — capriciousness as to 
Soils, climates. cuIti\ation. pruning, diseases and insects; 
malialeb is atlapted to wider range of soils, is hardier t(j 
heat and cold, less i)articular as to tillage, will stand 




FIG. 169 — L'NPACKING AND HEELINIMN NURSERY STOCK 

This work should be done immediately on arrival of stock, unless trees are in 
prime condition and can be planted at once. If shriveled or dry the trees should be 
soaked in water two or three days before planting. 

more pruning, is less susce])tible to insects and is not 
badly afifected b}?- shot-hole fungus. It is more easilv 
worked, both as to actual l:)udding and to length of sea- 
son. It also rijjens its trees l)etter and may thus he dug 
earlier than trees on mazzard. 

Fruit growers in their turn find trees on mahaleb 
stocks hardier, though not as hardy as might l)e wished; 



204 PLANT rUOPAGATION 

more dwarf; more precocious as to bearing; as good as to 
size of fruit borne ; poorer in union than mazzard ; bet- 
ter adapted to diverse soils, especially light ones; also to 
shallow culture; shorter lived; less productive and 
profitable under equal conditions of soil and climate than 
trees on mazzard, this last being the consensus of 
o])inion among the great cherry regions of California, 
Oregon, A\'ashington, Michigan and New York. 

263. Other cherry stocks. — Few fruits have such a 
wealth of other stocks to choose among, yet have been 
tried so little. Russian cherries, come fairly true from 
seed, and make good orchard plants on their own roots. 
Only sour kinds should be used — Bessarabian, Brusseler 
Braune, Double Natte, George Glass, Lutovka, Early 
Morello, Osthein and Vladimir. These, it is believed, 
would have some dwarfing effect. Ostheim and Morello 
have been used successfully in the North Mississippi 
\'alley. Bird, pin or pigeon cherry {Pruiiiis pcnnsyl- 
vanica) is often used as a hardy stock for cold regions 
and as a makeshift, since it dwarfs the trees and suckers 
badly. In the Northwest the sand cherry (P. pumila) 
is used in cold, dry regions for sour cherries. It is as 
easy to work as mahaleb and its seedlings are large 
enough to set in nursery rows the following spring for 
August budding. Winter-rooted cuttings set in the 
nursery with two to four inches growth can also be 
budded in August. This species has made good unions 
with hardy cherries by budding and does not dwarf the 
trees more the first five years than does mahaleb. In 
Japan the Dai-Sakura, supposed to be a variety of P. 
pscudocerasus, grown by nurserymen from mound layers 
and cuttings for stock, has a somewhat dwarfing influence 
on European cherries. It should be tried in America. 
Among the many other stocks available some have 
already been introduced by the United States Department 
of Agriculture. Probably several of these or the others 
mentioned, will prove better than mazzard and mahaleb. 

Cherries are usually budded ; they may be more or less 



STOCK AND ClON HANDLING 



20 = 



easily root grafted, though perhaps not as profitably. 
Whole roots are generally used, the union being made at 
the crown. In the cold Northwest the work is done with 
the intention of making the trees own-rooted. 

Cherry buds are generally taken from nursery stock. 
Apparently varieties do not wear out, since old kinds have 
lost no characters accredited to them, even centuries ago ; 
nor does taking buds from vigorous, mature trees or 
even decrepit trees seem to make a difference— all alike 
produce the variety. Hence, _the hypotheses that fruit 
trees degenerate and that they may be improved by bud 
selection finds no support in the cherry. 

264. Cherry grafting.— At the Canadian Experimental Farms root 
gratts of Morello on commercial stocks gave poor results; crown 
grafts good ones. For budding, the bird cherry (P. pennsylva- 
iiica) gave so much sap that Inuls did not unite well 

265. Cherry grafting and budding.— Cherry cions, according to 
a writer m the Gardeners' Chronicle, should be cut at least two 
months before graftmg and buried in a sheltered frost-proof place 
Established stocks are budded in July, not at the base, but at the 
exact height of the head Stocks that fail to take are grafted the 
following spring, when the stocks are headed back as close to the 
ground as convenient and whip grafted, cions being about five 
inches long, bound with raffia and covered with prepared clay 




I I(J. 170— BARK GRAITINC, IN \'AR10US STAGES 

1. Stock. 2, cions set and tied. 3, cions wa.xed. 4 
all but two cions grew. ' 



Jion. 



5, results: 



206 



I'LAiNT rKOl'AGATlON 



(clay and fresh horse manure). A point is made abo\c and heli)\v 
the bandage to shed water. In less than a month the buds should 
start. The shoots are brittle and need staking. 

266. Rose stocks are sometimes grown from seeds sown 
as soon as ripe or stored in the hips till spring; hardy 
species outdoors, tender ones under glass. Layers and 
root cuttings are often used, but semi-mature stem cut- 
tings from forced plants in midwinter under glass are 
most popular. Manetti and multiflora stocks imported 




FIG. 171— TREES STACKED IN FROST PROOF NURSERY CELLAR 
This is the plan followed by the largest nursery companies of the North 

from Europe are most popular. In America the former 
are most widely used. They must have their buds re- 
moved to prevent sprouting, which they will otherwise 
surely do. Budding in America is done cl<»se to tlie 
ground, but in Europe the popular "tree" roses are made 
bv inserting the buds at three or four feet. ]\fultiflora 
is a producer of quick results. Its spring-made cuttings 
are readv for budding in six months. Home-grown seed- 
lings usually require two years to reach budding size. 



STCK'K AXDCIOX 1 1 A .\ I )| .1 .\ ( ; 



J07 



Wiiilcr graltiiis^- with durnumt wcod makes g-ood pot 
I)lants of liyhrid perpetual varieties. Rosa nibigiiwsa 
(sweet ])riar), A', zcatsoiiiaita, and several other species 
are used to some extent. Usually the shield method of 
huddino-, l)ut sometimes veneer grafting, is employed. 

267. Hybrid stocks for roses.— A writer in American Card en in. 1 
considers Manetti stocks (popularly used) unsuited to American 
clmiatic conditions. Where perfect hardiness is required he has 
found Rosa setigera, R. IVicliuraiana and R. rubicjinosa superior; 
for, he says, "all make good, deep roots, and are little affected by 
dry weather when established, and are not at all disposed to 
sucker. ' The best of all stocks he considers to be a cross between 
Uothilde Soupert and Crimson Rambler, both varieties of R. Multi- 
flora. These stocks are exceptionally vigorous, do not sprout, and 
are easily budded and in hardiness little inferior to the native species 
The roots are easily splice-grafted, but the stems are not so satis- 
factory for grafting, h'or tree rose effects he prefers to bud high 
on strong sweet briar shoots and trim of¥ all other shoots as soon 
as the bud has formed a fair top 

_ 263. Grafted roses for forciiig.-A. B. Scott has grown half 
a dozen varieties of torcing roses on their own roots and on 
manetti stocks. Since all but American Beauty and Perle des 
Jardins did much better as grafts, he concludes that grafted roses 
make strong, vigorous plants much quicker than roses on their 
own roots, produce as many, if not more flowers, of which a lareer 
proportion are extra line, and the plants are said to have more 
vitality. Manetti is considered best for stocks. 

269. Citrus propagation.— Kach principal citrus section 
and sod has its preference of stocks. In the heavv. moist 
fertile soil of Louisiana and Mississippi. Cifnts t'rifoUata 
a deciduous species, leads because of its vigor and 
hardiness, which are imparted to the cion because it 
becomes dormant in fall. In northeastern Florida tri- 
fohata also leads, though some of the more lustv-grow- 
mg stocks give good results in deep sandy lands, 'in cen- 
tral Florida, on sandy soil, rich in vegetable matter. 
])()mel(. stock does best, though the sour\irange gives a 
hardier tree. In South Florida rough lemon is far in the 
lead. It is a rampant grower which does well on soils 
ahnost sterile for other stocks. 'Hie fruit it grows from 
cions worked on it is likely to be coarse. On heavy soils 
free from limestone, pomelo and sour orange do' well, 



208 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



though the trees are rather slower but produce better 
ripening, smoother fruit. Lime stocks make trees sen- 
sitive to cold and give too many failures. 

Investigation has show^n that for Florida, orange grow- 
ers prefer rough lemon stock for "high pine" lands. Sour 
stock is considered better than sweet stock for all kinds 
of land. In Louisiana, sour stock is preferred by about 
90 per cent of the planters. California growers who have 
tried sweet and sour stocks side by side on a large scale 
give data which warrant the conclusions: 1, that sour 
stock trees make more thrifty growth ; 2, are freer 
from disease and are fully resistant to "foot rot"; 3, less 
liable to injury by cold while young; 4, the quality of 
the fruit is not impaired. 




FIG. 172— ENGLISH "CLEFT" GRAFT 

A, Improper angle for large cuttings, should not be parallel but slightly away 
from long side; B, ditto for small cuttings; C, D, proper angle for tongues; 
E, F, uniting and tying. 



Orange on Citrus trifoliata stocks in California have made good 
growth in open culture. Satsuma and other varieties of the Man- 
darin class at five to nine years old were eight to ten feet high. 
This stock appears to resist drouth especially well, and the varieties 
of orange and other citrus fruits grafted on it appear to stand 10 
degrees more cold than on other stocks and also to come earlier 
into bearing. 

Seeds from only mature specimens should be saved for 
growing seedlings. It should be plump. Culls and 
drops allowed to rot are used, the seed being washed out 
and air dried after sifting in a strong stream of water. 
A\'hen the ground is warm enough the seed is sown in 



\\l) CK IX II .Will. I NT. 



209 



SdiUlKTu I'lorida and tlu' West Indies as carl}' as De- 
cember, hut in northern hlorida. Louisiana and California 
not till Fehruary or March. Cultivation is the same as 
for garden crops. By fall following the seedlings will he 
() to 12 inches tall and one-fourth inch thick. A tree 
digger ma}- he used to lift them for transi)lanting in 
nursery rows, where they are kept free of soil crust and 
weeds. 

270. Citrus stocks may be propagated by stem or root 
cuttings of fairly mature wood, but they are not as satis- 
factory for budding as are seedling trees because they 
grow slowl}- and are more irregular. Budding, grafting 



r . 


M . ^ 


--■ ft- - 

B 


^^1 


■T'^I^ 





FIG. 173— PACKING NURSERY STOCK FOR SHIPMENT 



and inarching are all used more or less ; the first is most 
popular. Dormant budding is usually done in late 
autumn or in spring after vigorous growth has begun, 
other budding may be done at almost any time during the 
growing season. Bud sticks are generally cut and stored 
a few days or even weeks before budding, because it is 
believed a larger percentage will grow. The process of 
budding is practically the same as for peach, except that 
the cross cut is made at the lower end of the longitudinal 
cut. 

"Lopping" the tops of the stocks is done about three 
weeks after the budding to force the buds to develop 
shoots. The cuts, made about two inches above the 



2IO 



PL.\N-|' I'ROI'ACAIIOX 




MG. 174— NURSERY STORAGE HOUSh .S( tNl-.s 

Above, trees in the storage cellar bundled ready for baling and boxing; below, 
btles and boxes ready for shipment. 



Sl"( )< ■ K A \ 1 ) ( ■ l( » X H A N 1 )IJ X ( ; 



21 I 



buds. (K) 111)1 r()nii)lctcly sc\cr the lops, which arc bent 
()\cr. One nietliod is to bend the tops nf one idw toward. 
sa\' tlie south end, and tht)se of the next toward the mirth, 
so the cultixattJi* may go up one inter-rt)w s[)ace and down 
the next without serious interference. The to])s remain 
attached till the si)r(>nts are say IT) inches tall. 

Another method, dependent somewhat upon placing 
the nursery row^s in pairs about three feet apart, with 
wider inter-rows between the next pair, is to lop the tops 
of the pairs into the narrow middles and leave them there 
as a mulch until early fall. Some nurserymen favor this, 
because thev belie\'e a better grDWth <»f sprouts is thus 




FIG. 175— THREE METHODS OF BENCH GRAFTING GRAPES 
A to e, vvhipgraft; f to i, grafting with galvanized wire; j to n, Champin graft. 

secured. 'J he wider inter-rows are cultivated. In every 
case when tops are finally cut off, the stubs are cut oft' 
smoothly, ch^se to the buds, to favor healing without 
scars. Staking the young trees is necessary, because the 
unions are at first weak. 

271. Grape grafting is usually a necessity only (T) for 
working t)ver undesirable varieties or seedlings to desired 
kinds and (2) for growing European varieties in regions 
where the phylloxera (280) exists. The former, scarcely 
a nursery practice, is made by cleft grafts below the soil 
surface, without tying or waxing, but with earth mounded 



212 PLANT rkOPAGATION' 

over the union and up to the upper bud. The latter is 
done in a variety of ways (Fig. 175). The reason for 
doing it is that American stocks, the ones always used, 
are less susceptible to phylloxera injury than are 
European varieties. Care must be taken to prevent root- 
ing of the cions, else no advantage will follow grafting. 
Attention is called to grape-grafting experiments in the 
paragraphs which follow. 

Contrary to general belief, Daniel declares that the character of 
the cion graft and of the wine produced from the fruit is often 
changed, largely because of the difference in nutrition as a result 
of callusing the grafted parts and the consequent difficulty of sap 
circulation. By taking advantage of such changes, Daniel believes 
that it will be possible to produce new varieties by grafting so as 
to combine the good qualities of French fruit with the phylloxera 
resistance of American sorts. Grape growing by direct producers 
(those on their own roots) is considered most desirable, so they 
should be sought by grafting. 

Degrully, a French scientist, has pointed out that variations in 
vines, due to grafting, should not cause apprehension. The thou- 
sands of acres reconstructed on American stocks still thrive and 
produce abundantly 20, 25 and 30 years after grafting. Variations 
due to grafting, he maintains, are as yet only of scientific interest. 

272, Effects of vine grafting. — Because of agitation, the Society 
of Agriculture of France appointed a committee to investigate ef- 
fect's of grafting on yield and quality of grapes and wine. The 
committee concluded that where the factors of adaptation and af- 
finity of stock and cion, as well as other necessary conditions for 
successful grape culture, have been realized, there appears to be 
nothing to warrant the claims that grafting has a deleterious effect 
on yield and quality of product. 

273. Experiments in grape grafting — Tn California, experiments 
in grape propagation warranted the following slightly condensed 
conclusions (Cal. Exp. Sta. Bui. 127) : 1, A cutting graft of suit- 
able variety makes as large and vigorous growth as a simple cutting, 
so by bench grafting no time is lost in establishing a resistant 
vineyard. 2. Resistant varieties difficult to root but easy to graft 
when old should not be bench grafted. .3, Care in callusing, plant- 
ing and treatment in nursery and especially in keeping the grafts 
moist from the time they are made till they are in the callusing bed, 
(Fig. 105) will enable even an inexperienced grafter to obtain at 
least 60 per cent of good, grafted plants. 4, Callusing in sand 
insures more perfect unions and a larger percentage of successful 
grafts than planting directly in the nursery. 5, The moisture of 
the callusing bed should not be excessive, and the temperature 
should be relatively warm. 6, The growing grafts should be 



STOCK AM) ( lOX HANDLING 



213 



watched closely in order to see that the roots of the cions are re- 
moved before they become large, and that the raffia is cut I)efore 
it strangles the graft. 7. The English cleft graft (Fig- I7:i) is 
preferable to the Champin graft (Fig. 175). because it gives more 
perfect unions and can be made with more accuracy and rapidity. 
8, Cions of two eyes are preferable to those of one eye, as they 
give more chances of success. !), Rupestris St. George seems to be 
remarkably adapted to California soils (except the heaviest clays) 
and conditions, and is to be preferred to any variety yet tested 
wherever deep penetration of roots is possible and desirable. 10, 
All the eyes of the Ritl^csiris stock should be cut deeply and care- 
fully. 11, A vigorous and large-growing I'inifcra cion promotes 
an equally vigorous growth of Rupestris St. George used as stock. 

274. Bench grafting of grapes experimentally reported by Hed- 
rick of the New York state station presents 
the following main features : The grafted 
grapes were more productive than those 
on their own roots ; they were a few days 
earlier; the 19 varieties employed were 
all congenial to the three stocks used. 
Samples of the stocks used are shown at 
1, Fig. 157. Two eye cuttings six to 
eight inches long were taken in the fall 
and buried in sand till needed in late 
March, when the work was done. Roots 
were cut back to an inch for convenience 
in handling by whip grafting (Fig. 157). 
Grafts on the previous season's wood gave 
many suckers ; those on the original much 
fewer. After the operation the grafts were 
stored for callusing until planting time. All 
three of the stocks used — Clevener, St. 
George and Gloire — are recommended 
for trial commercially, and three others 
suggested as promising ; viz., Riparia Grand 
Glabre, and two hybrids between Vitis 
riparia and J\ rupestris known as 3,306 
and 3,309. During the growing season, 
shoots from the stock (Fig. 157) and roots 
from the cion (Fig. 157) must be re- 
moved at least twice ; the earlier the better. 

275. Bench-grafting cuttings is unhesi- 
tatingly recommended by Biolitti of 
California for the following reasons 
cion are young and of the same size; unions are therefore strong 
and permanent. Grafting may be done under conditions favorable 
to rapid and effective work, in any weather, during three or four 
months, on rainy days when other work is not pressing or cannot 




FIG. 176— GRAFTED 
GRAPE VINE 

Note shoot growing from 
stock below union at label. 



Both stock and 



214 



ri.ANT I'KOl'ACAriON 



be done. One man who tliorouglily understands all details can 
oversee several unskilled workmen, making it possible to employ 
cheap labor for much of the work. Cultural conditions are more 
easily controlled. There is less danger of inferior results due to 
excessively wet or dry weather during the growing season. Tn the 
nursery the vines can be cultivated, irrigated and generallj' attended 
to much more perfectly than in the field. Rigid selection of vines 
.for planting can be made, rendering it possible to have nothing in 
the vineyard but strong plants and perfect unions. As perfect 
stands can be obtained in vineyards the first year in any soil or 
season as when planting ordmary non-resistant vines. Unions of 
vines can be placed exactly where wanted. Land where the vineyard 
is to be planted can be used for other crops one year longer than 
when field grafting is adopted. All cultural operations during the 

lirst year are much less expensive 
than in vineyard grafting, as 
they are spread over a much 
smaller area- Two acres of nursery 
will produce enough bench grafts to 
plant 100 acres of vineyard. 

In shijrt, starting a resistant vine- 
yard by means of bench grafts is 
much better than by any other 
method used at present, because it 
is least costly and gives best results. 
This is true whether the bench grafts 
are produced at home or bought at 
present market rates. Growers are 
earnestly cautioned, however, against 
planting any but first choice bench 
grafts ; second and third choice are 
little better than field grafts- 
All that can be said in favor of 
nursery grafting and bench grafting 
roots, is that vines so produced are 
fairly good when bench grafting is 
impracticable. These methods permit 
root grafting with stocks which, 
owing to rooting difficulty, are very 
difficult to bench graft as cuttings. By their means resistant cut- 
tings too small to bench graft may be utilized, and a larger percent- 
age of well-grown grafted vines obtained from the nursery. 

On the other hand, as the stock is at least two years old when 
grafted, there is reason to fear that with some stocks many unions 
will fail as the vines become older. The vines are larger when taken 
from the nursery, thus increasing cost of removal. There is little 
if any gain from growth over bench grafts wdien vineyard' planted. 
Finally, the method requires a year longer, and is more expensive. 
276. Grafting resistant grape stocks. — F. Gillet olitained best 




FIG. 177— GRAFTING 
CONIFERS 

a, stock, b, cion in English 
"cleft" graft, b, English method 
for cypress, juniper, etc. 



STOCK AX 1) f ION IIANDLIXG 21 



rosiills willi riparia stocks. One and t\vo-j-car rooted cuttings were 
used in preference to plain cuttin.gs, because of a gain of one year 
and because a larger ])er cent will grow, in licld jiractice lie used 
rooted cuttings just grafted and rooted resistant stock in alternate 
rows. \\ Idle be secured JS.") to i)() per cent of the former, only (>() 
jicr cent of the latter grew, and tbcse produced very few grapes tlie 
year set out ; the former gave eight to eleven pounds a plant. Mr. 
Gillett considers bcncli grafting resistant vines the best, clieapest 
and quickest way to reconstruct a vineyard or start a new one. 

277. Influence of grape stock on cro'p. — L. Ravaz, a French in- 
vestigator, reports ~8 vears' c(jnsecutive yields of two varieties of 
European grapes grafted on various American stocks. Though 
much decadence is noted in the vines grafted on certain stocks, the 
decline in yield and vigor is attributed to such causes as variation 
in resistance to ])iiylloxera (:-'8()), unseasonable weath-er, lack of 
adaptation to soil, etc., rather than to inlluence of grafting and old 
age. The general deduction is that under proper conditions grafted 
vines do not deteriorate with age more than do ungrafted ones. 

27S. Grafting green grape vines.— In Rumania the tongue graft 
has lieen successful with green wood not less than one-fourth inch 
diameter at the point grafted, and the wood of both stock and 
cion hard enough to be with difficulty compressed between thumb and 
linger. The usual precautions of mature wood grafting must be 
observed. After union the grafts may be handled like cuttings, or 
roots may be started by layering on the stocks below the grafts. 
The advantages claimed are: The method simplifies the operations 
by obviating stratification of both stocks and cions; 2, it is cheaper 
and a larger percentage of grafts succeed ; 3, the chance element 
is reduced to a minimum; 4, it seems to promise greater success 
with varieties diflicult to unite when mature. 

279. Seedling vines as cions. — Trabut suggests that new varieties 
of grapes may be quickly brought into fruit by grafting the seed- 
lings on green shoots of established vines. He has secured suc- 
cessful results by the following method : In early June the seed- 
lings which had only their cotyledons, were cut as for ordinary 
cleft grafting and inserted in the tips of green shoots wdiose ends 
were wrapped with small paraffined bands secured with rafiia. The 
completed grafts were then covered with jiaraffined paper bags to 
preserve humidity. In about two weeks the parts united and the 
cions grew vigorously. By October the unions were almost invisible 
and the canes often 10 feet long. 

280. Phylloxera, a plant lou.se which in its nymph stage 
feeds on roots of grapes, and forms galls on the leaves, 
the latter being the most conspicuous sign of infestation. 
The insect does little appreciable damage to American 
species of grapes, hence these are used as stocks for 
European varieties, which are so seriously attacked that, 
except in California where the insect was tinknown until 



2l6 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



recently, all attempts to grow European grapes in 
America during more than 200 years resulted in failure. 
When American ^•ines were taken to Europe, the insect 
practically ruined the grape industry, as it has since 
threatened to do in California. American grape stocks 
seem to be the only salvation. 

281. Root-grafted vs. budded trees. — For many years fruit 
growers and nurserymen have discussed the relative advantages and 

disadvantages of whole root, 
vs. piece root vs. budded 
trees, largely without experi- 
mental evidence. Arguments 
have mostly been generalized 
statements, only too often 
warped by individual preju- 
dice or pocketbook. Before 
summarizing the experiments 
recently published, some lead- 
ing opinions should be cited 
and methods outlined so the 
reader may choose what ap- 
peals to him. Tl:e following 
points must be borne in mind. 
Nursery budding upon 
spring-set stocks is dene 
during summer, but no 
growth occurs till the follow- 
ing season (.'Ul). The stocks 
before being planted in 
tlie nursery are trimmed 
for obvious reasons. In 
whole-root grafting the 
cions are crown set and roots similarly trimmed. In piece-root graft- 
ing several bits of root are used, the top piece with a crown, the other 
pieces without any. These latter are, of course, smaller. Thus piece- 
root grafting creates a problem of its own because of the varying 
sizes and vigor of the pieces. Piece-root grafting may therefore be 
said to be unfairly pitted against both budding and whole-root graft- 
ing, which under equal conditions are equally valuable methods of 
propagation. 

Differences of growth characteristic of each method result from 
differences of stock trimming, not methods of propagation. Even 
casual observation will show differences in root development 
between budded and root-grafted trees, the latter being more hori- 
zontal, prolonged and shallower on one side of the tree than the 




FIG. 178— GRAFTED GRAPES 

A, effect on resistant stock of allowing 
cion to take root; a, resittant slock small hs- 
cause cion has rooted at c; B, \ ine in which 
cion has not been allowed to root. Note 
smooth union at b in each case. 



STUCK AM) tIO.\ HANDLING 



217 



former, when dug from the nursery row — all this apart from 
differences characteristic of variety. Such differences are due to 
differences in stock cutting. Doubtless if stocks were cut alike for 
both budding and root grafting development would be closely 
similar; for when short pieces of root with few lateral branches 
are used they must grow differently from long roots with numerous 
branches In strong stt)cks where only the tips are cut off and bud- 
ding performed root development is largely if not wholly lateral, 
whereas when small pieces arc used growth is mainly downward. 
Hence the theoretical conclusion that at a given nursery age, 
whole-rooted trees have naturally and necessarily longer and 
stronger roots than those grown from piece roots. 

When root pieces are very small the resulting trees will be small 
at the end of the first growing season. Hence nurserymen often 
cut back the tops so as to secure stout, straight bodies which show no 
trace of the growth ring between seasons, and which do not branch 
too low or send up a crooked leader from a lateral bud, due to the 
winterkilling of the terminal one. li the trees are sold as two 
years old there can be no objection to this practice, but if the age 
is reckoned from the cut, an injustice is almost surely done the 
fruit grower, because greater quantities of roots are removed at 
digging time than would be the case with true one-year trees. The 
lirst season's growth should always be high enough to form a good 
tree body of the right height, whether or not the fruit grower is a 
believer in low or high-headed trees. 

Budded trees of the same age as root-grafted ones grown in the 
same field usually average larger, the difference diminishing in pro- 
portion as the length of the root stock p'ece increases. Similarly 
their root systems go deeper and show more synnnetry, but these 
characteristics also lessen as the root stocks lengthen. 

It must not be concluded from the discussion so far presented 
that budded trees are necessarily superior to root-grafted ones, 
though it is probably a fact that large numbers of trees produced 




FIG. 179— TWO STYLES 01- CROWN GRAFTING 

A, slot of bark removed for cions a, b; B, cioiis fitted in place; C, completed 
L;raft; D, slot of wood and bark removed; c, cion cut to triangular wedge to fit 
slot in stock; E, stock and cion fitted; F, completed graft; G, slot making or 
"inlaying" tool. 



2l8 



^ 



PLANT I'KOI'AGATION 




from small, short and weak stuck pieces are decidedly indi-ffcrent 
and even distinctly poor. The point is that the two methods form 
trees whose roots at least are different in appearance and develop- 
ment. Opinion seems to be general among fruit growers and 
nurserymen that budded trees root more deeply than do root- 
grafted ones and make longer-lived trees when transplanted to 
the orchard. It is therefore concluded that more depends upon the 
handling of stocks at the time of performing the operations than 
upon the method per se. In the northwestern states where trees 
on their own roots are preferred, piece-root grafting is not only 

more economical of stocks, 
but has the merit that the 
cions soon take root in the 
orchard, and the trees be- 
come 'own-rooted" (242). In 
other sections budded stock is 
perhaps better than root- 
grafted trees of the same 
age and grown under the 
same conditions; at least as 
dug in the nursery. *Neverthe- 
less as good trees can be 
grown by the grafting meth- 
o'd. As to results in the or- 
chard the following para- 
L'raphs will be interesting. 

282. Whole vs. piece root 
vs. buds ill apple propaga- 
tion. — During the past de- 
cade or two work has been 
done at experiment stations 
in Pennsylvania, Oregon, 
Kansas and Alabama, to 
determine the relative value 
of whole and piece roots and budding. After 10 or 
more years reports show that differences must be measured by 
decimal fractions to be discovered at all. In Pennsylvania after a 
decade of work, according to J. P. Stewart, trees propagated on 
top-piece roots are slightly in the lead in all respects, with those on 
whole roots second. In Alabama, trees on bottom pieces of stock 
roots show a slight superiority at the close of the second season, 
with those on top pieces second, and whole roots third. In Oregon, 
trees on whole roots were slightly ahead at the close of the fourth 
season, in the single variety remaining at that time, with those on 
top-pieces again second. 

In Kansas M trees grafled uu wliole roots averaged one-tentli 
inch larger in trunk ciiameler, at the end of 10 years' orchard 
o-rowth Uian 30 trees Iniddcd in the usual manner on wnole roots. 
They in turn averaged one-llfth inch larger than 10:2 trees, mvolv- 



-TRENCHER 
MARKER 



AND ROW 



Used to mark rows for nursery stock 
planting. 



STOCK AND ClON IIANDLIMG 



219 



iiig some additional varieties propagated on piece roots. No dif- 
ferences in growth or vigor were obscrval)le in the orchard. In 
another Kansas experiment three varieties of 400 trees each, on 
whole roots, were compared by Judge Wellhouse with 400 of the 
same varieties on two-inch piece roots. In the latter case, the young 
trees had developed considerable numbers of roots directly from 
the cions, thus making the trees largely own rooted, while no cion 
roots were developed on whole-rooted trees. After 19 years in the 
orchard, the only difference observed was in the greater number of 
sprouts from the whole-rooted trees. 

From all these data it is olnious that none of the present forms 
of propagation has any material advantage over any other. It 
may be of distinct advantage to get rid of the seedling root alto- 
gether, either by using the shortest roots practicable and then cut- 
ting them off during transplanting after roots have developed above, 
or possibly by a direct rooting of the cions. 




FIG. 181— GAUGE FOR CUTTING GRAPE STOCKS 

This insures accuracy as to length. The base of the cion is placed against 
the adjustable crosspiece end the LU.iing moved back and forth till a bud comes 
just to the right of the guide line when it is cut off flush with the edge of the 
hoard. Thus lU-inch ir.terr.ode is secured above the top with only l]^ inches 
maximum variation in total length. 



Elimination of seedling roots would at least obviate the numerous 
ill effects of poor unions. It would also reduce the opi)ortunity 
for crown-gall infections, eliminate the possibility of harmful in- 
tlucnce of variable seedling stocks upon cions, and make it possible 
to develop delmite and standaid root-systems, with which injuries 
from root ai)his and kindred difficulties might well be greatly re- 
duced or entirely eliminated. This important array of advantages, 
all of them practical, is by no means imi)ossible of attainment. 

283. Selection of cions is of prime importance in graft- 
in^-. Xoiic hut tlioi-oui^lil}- mature wood, cut while the 
huds are fully dormant, .should ever he used. Preferahly 
it should he one year old. thoug'h sometimes two-year and 
e\'en three-year wood gi\es g-ood results. Pithy and soft 
wood is worthless for grafting'. Cions may he packed in 
damp moss or sand and stored in a cool cellar until buds 



220 PLANT PROPAGATION 

on trees exposed to the weather begin to break. If the 
moss is too wet the cions will become water soaked and 
worthless. When cutting cions from cion sticks the low- 
est few inches should be discarded, because the buds are 
inferior and may not start at all. The tips are often im- 
mature and should also be discarded. 

284. Shipping cions long distances. — The following method of 
shipping mango cions from Ceylon, India, to Washington, D. C, 
recommends itself to shippers of other cions. The cut ends of the 
cions were covered with collodion, the bud sticks dipped in clay 
mud, packed with a small amount of moist coir (refuse cocoanut 
fiber) and forwarded in cylindrical tin tubes. 



CHAPTER XV 

GRAFTING WAXES, WOUND DRESSINGS, ETC. 

285. Grafting wax. — The great majority of the many 
recipes for grafting wax vary only in the proportions of 
the three ingredients, resin, beeswax and hard cake beef 
tallow or linseed oil, sometimes used instead of tallow. 
These variations are largely due to personal preference, 
though in some cases the consistency of the finished wax 
is thus purposely varied. For soft waxes the proportion 





^ i 


i 


] 


^ 


k 




E^^^^"^ 


-X 


t 


M 


^ 


X 1 


P^ 




\1 


\ mm 


^554 



FIG. 182— NURSERY TREE PESTS 
1. Hairy root and crown gall. 2. Woolly aphis. 



of tallow should be increased ; for tough ones, that of 
beeswax. Thus any formula may be varied to secure 
wax for any kind or character of use indoors or out. 

As a rule, liquid waxes are less popular in America than 
in Europe, where also pitch waxes and grafting clay (fresh 
cow manure free from straw, three parts ; clay or clay loam, 
seven parts and cow hair half a part) are more in use than 
here. In the table which follows the first formula is 
l)robably the most popular. The functions of grafting 
wax are to protect the injured tissues from decay and 

221 



222 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



weathering and to prevent losses of plant juices by evap- 
oration. Hence soft wax is better than hard, because it 
may be fitted more closely to the wood and into chinks. 
Large wounds should first be trimmed of ragged edges, 
then swabbed or sprayed with bordeaux mixture and 
finally covered with wax. 

The resin and beeswax waxes are all started alike ; the 
materials previously made into small lumps may all be 
placed in the pot together, but preferably the resin is 
melted over a very gentle fire first and the other ingre- 
dients added. Boiling must be avoided. After stirring to 
make uniform, the melted mixture is poured into a tul) of 
cold water and flattened out so it will cool evenly. When 
cool enough to handle, it is kneaded and pulled till the 
color resembles molasses taffy. To prevent its sticking 
to the skin, the hands are kept greasy. Should lumps 




FIG. 183— LARGE TREES BALED FOR SHIPMENT 

1, wagons are used for short hauls. 2, twenty-five maple trees make up th'.s 

carload. 



CKiU'TING WAXES, VVULM) DKILSSINGS, ETC. 2>j 

occur (because of improper handling), it may be re-melted 
and re-worked. Usually the wax is made into balls or 
sticks for convenient use. It will keep indefinitelv 
Lmseed od for makmg grafting waxes must be free from 
adulterations such as cottonseed oil. 

Alcoholic waxes are considered too soft to stand the 
heat of American summers. They melt and run. For 
winter work for covering wounds and for bridge graftinc^ 
their softness is an advantage. To make them the resin 
IS melted slowly, tallow added and the kettle removed 
from the fire. When cooled somewhat, alcohol (and tur- 
pentine when in the recipe) is added. Stirring continues 
from the adding of tallow till the mixture is nearly cold. 




FIG. 184— SMITH'S IMPROVED METHOD OF GRAFTING 



a h ;,hir • '^e'^ff'^e ''r>nd" sraftmg; B, large branches with graft in position 
n'li^H r. p■^''^ graft; C, small branches grafted ready for waxing D com-' 

pleted graft; E. large graft one year old; F, small graft one year old 



286. Waxed string used in root grafting is made bv 
placing balls of No. 18 or 20 knitting cotton in hot resin 
wax, turning them for a few minutes, removing and let- 
ting them drain and cool. Before immersing, the outside 
end of each ball should be definitely located^where it can 
readily be found, else unwinding will be difficult. This 
string is used mainly for tying root grafts. It is strong 
enough to make a tight wind, yet weak enough to brcak 
xyithout hurting the hands. It does not need to be tied, 
since it readily sticks. 



224 



PLANT PROrAGATION 



287. Waxed bandages may be prepared in the same way 
as waxed string. They are best made of old cotton sheets 
or similar cloth torn in strips of any desired width and 
wound in rolls like tape. For l:>inding large wounds, as 
in bridge grafting, they are excellent. 

Popular Grafting Waxes 







Is 




c — . 

JO 


o 
o 


.S 
c 
a 

3 


Remarks 




Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pint 


Ounce 


Table- 
spoons 




1 


3 


3 


2 


- 


- 


- 


J. J. Thomas's wax 


2 


4 


2 


1 


- 


- 


- 


Cheaper than No. 1. 


3 


4 


2 


- 


1 


- 


- 


Increase oil for softness. 


4 


6 


2 


- 


1 


- 


- 


Increase oil for softness. 


S 


1 


1 ounce 


- 


- 


5 


1 


Melt resin, add tallow, 
remove from fire and stir in 
liquids gradually. Can or 
bottle. Apply with brush. 


6 


4 


1 


1 


- 


- 


- 


Somewhat harder than No. 2 


7 


6 


1 


- 


1 


- 


- 


Brush on thickly while hot. 


8 


6 


1 


1 


- 


- 


- 


Use v\arm indoors. 


9 


4 


1 


- 


li 


- 


- 


Raw oil. A hard, warm- 
weather wa.x. 


10 


4 to 5 


Uto2 


- 


1 toU 


- 


- 


An outdoor wa.x. 



289. Rubber strip in grafting. — R. B. Rogers, an English experi- 
menter, has found pure rubber electric wire insulation strip use- 
ful in grafting. It is bought as rolls. The grafts are fitted as 
i-.sual, the strip stretched well and wound tightly so as to cover the 
e.xposed part, exclude air and hold the cion tirmly in place. A 
strin four or live inches long and one-half inch wide is enough for 
ordinary grafts. Rubber solution should be used to make the ends 
stick. Strip need not be removed, since it stretches and rots with 
graft growth. Old strip quickly spoils in the sun. 

290. Wrapping grafts with "cloth, rubber, waxed paper, plain 
lb read, waxed thread and plain thread with the unions waxed, were 
experimentally tried by the government to determine the effect on 
crown gedl. From the large amount of data it is concluded that 



I 



GRAFTING WAXIIS, VVOIXD DKICSSI N'GS, I:TC. 



--J 



w lapping rcilucfs injury, the bcsl material being riibljcr, then clulli 
(uliicli gave the largest percentage of sniDotli healthy trees;. 
Cliitli is also clieaper. 'I'hc investigators strongly oppose wrapping 
with thread and llicn waxing. 

291. Bass, ihc inner ])ark of I)assvvood, has until re- 
cently been ii.sed in greenhouses and nurseries to tic 
l)Iants. btuls and grafts. RafHa has almost replaced it. 

292. Raffia, the lower epidermis of a 
Aladagascar palm {Raffia ritffia), peeled 
in narrow strips and dried, is extensively 
used in America and Europe for tying 
vines, flowers, celery and in graftage. It 
is soft, strong enough for the purposes, 
and not quickly altered by moisture or 
temperature. Because of its cheapness it 
has displaced bass in nursery and green- 
house practice. Its chief fault is its ten- 
dency to roll when dry. Moistening 
overcomes this. As received from 
abroad, it is in plaits or skeins. Fig. 185 
shows one of these unraveled. 

293. Grafts in moss and charcoal. — R. 
C. de Briailles has simplified grape 
bench grafting by the following plan : 

As the grafts are made they are placed in a 
box containing a three-inch layer of damp moss 
and charcoal (three to one) and covered with 
another layer about half as deep. So on till the 
box is nearly full, the remaining space being 
filled with packing. The box may thus be ship- 
ped or the grafts treated at once by 
a room warmed to 50 or 60 




FIG. 185— 
SKEIN OF RAFFIA 



being placed in 
degrees. Within 24 hours the 
buds start lo swell, and in a week may be one-half inch long, when 
the moss is removed for inspection. If all is well, new packing is 
applied about half as thick. 

If any grafts are rotting, the whole are exposed for 24 hours 
and then covered. If too dry, a thicker layer of packing is added 
and t!ie box stood in water of the room temperature till the packing 
is moistened nearly up to the callus. The tops of the grafts must 
not be wetted, else rotting may follow. Watering thus once a 
week will be enough. 

In two or three weeks the grafts will have callused and leaf 



J2() PLANT rUOPACJATION 

i;ri)wlli will have started. The plants may then be hardened oft 
and transplanted in the held. 

Aflvantages of this method are that grafting is simplihed, sinee 
no tying is needed, the grafts are placed in the box as made without 
unnecessary handling, a development of vegetation is secured in 
three weeks equal to that of two months by ordinary outdoor prac- 
tice, a more perfect union and callus are secured and disbudding of 
the stock is unnecessary. 

294. Dressings for tree wounds.— Fruit growers have long used 
paints, tars, waxes and other substances as coverings for wounds 
on trees. The New York state station reports results of experi- 
ments with white lead, white zinc, yellow ocher, coal tar, shellac 
and avenarius carbolineum. The summary of Bulletin 396 by Howe 
is slightly condensed in this and the next paragraph. In all cases 
undressed pruning wounds have healed more rapidly than those 
whose surfaces have been protected. The first season shellac 
seemed to exert a stimulating influence on wounds, but the second 
season this disappeared. Of all materials used shellac was least 
injurious, but it adheres to wounded surfaces poorest of all. Car- 
bolineum and ocher caused so much injury that neither should be 
used. Coal tar not only caused injury, but quickly disappeared, 
either through evaporation or absorption. White lead and zinc 
caused some injury when applied, but the wounded tissues recovered 
rather quickly, and at the end of the first year the injury was not 
very marked; at the close of the second season it had nearly dis- 
appeared. These two are the best protective substances used, and 
of the two white lead is the better. Nothing is to be g^ined in 
treating wounds by waiting before applying the dressings. 

The treatment of peach tree wounds with any of the substances 
caused so much injury that it may be said peach wounds should 
never be treated with any of them. This may be inferred for 
other stone fruit trees. There is nothing lo show in the experiment 
that it is worth while to treat wounds large or small with any of 
the substances in common use. Had there been a longer period of 
observation, it might have been found that wood exposed in the 
larser wounds would have been somewhat saved from decay which 
often sets in on exposed wood of fruit trees. It may prove to be 
worth while, therefore, to cover large wounds, in which case white 
lead is undoubtedly the best dressing to u.se. 



CHAPTER XVI 
METHODS OF GRAFTING 

295. Classification of graftage. — Graftage methods nat- 
urally fall into three general classes: 1, Inarching, or 
grafting by approach, in which the cion is not severed 
from the parent plant until after union is complete ; 2, 
cion grafting, or true grafting, in which a twig with at 
least one bud is placed upon or in a stock ; and 3, bud 
grafting, or, to use its popular term, budding, in which 
only one bud is placed beneath the bark of the stock upon 
the surface of the young wood. 

296. Inarching, or grafting by approach (Fig. 186), 

which is often placed in 
a class by itself, may for 
convenience be treated 
here. The only point 
that distinguishes it 
from other styles in this 
grouping is that the cion 
is not separated from the 
parent plant until after 
union is complete. In 
other words, inarching 
consists in making one 
plant unite with another 
while still growing on 
its own roots. 

A small slice of stem 
of both stock and cion 
(Fig. 186, D), is cut with 
FIG. 186— INARCHING a sharp knife, and the 

A. stock; B, cion; C, stock and cion CUt SUrfaceS brOUgllt tO- 
bound together; D, cuts on stock and cion „„iU^„ „„A +:^A (^^.^,^ . 

to hasten union. gcthcr and tied hrmly 

227 




228 



PLAN'L' rROPAGATIOiX 



until Llicy ]ia\c united, in outdoor practice waxing and 
staking are usually necessary to prevent drying and 
working loose. After union is complete the l)ase of the 
cion and the top of the stock are cut away. 

\\hiic this is undoubtedly the original or natural 
method of grafting (since all grafts in the forest are 
formed in this way either between two trees or two 
limbs of the same tree), it has comparatively limited 
application in business horticulture, because other 
methods are less cumbersome and more economical of 
time and space. It is used, however, in Europe and else- 
where in the making of co'rdons, espaliers, etc. In 
orchards where Y-crotches have been allowed to form it 
is also useful in establishing living braces between the 
arms of the Y. For ornamental purposes it has been used 
in the Boboli gardens at Florence, Italy, where an avenue 
100 yards long has been arched over by European oaks 




FIG. 187— POPULAR GRAFTING METHODS 

1, Bridge or repair graft, cions at left; 2, cleft graft. A, cions, B, cross 
section showing insertion of cions at opposite ends of cleft in stock; c, transverse 
section showing vertical position of cions; d, finished graft. 



Mi':iii()i)S ()!• cKAFriNC. 229 

whose tops lia\c hccii uiiilcd liy iiiodilicd iiuiixliiiii;, iIil' 
clitfcrcnce heiiij^" tluit ncilhcr cioii hclovv the union nor 
stock al)o\c have been cut, hut both allowed to grow. 

In the topics, inarching- is used for propagating the 
mango. Seedlings are grown in hve or six-inch flower 
pots and placed on stands beneath trees to furnish cions 
and within easy reach of branches to be united, as already 
described. After union the potted trees are grown for a 
time in the nursery before being set in the orchard. 
Various citrus fruits and camelias were formerly in- 
arched, but are now mostly veneer grafted. 

Inarching on young seedlings, according to Oliver, has proved 
superior in simplicity, rapidity and results to inarching on plants in 
tive and six-incii pots, it has a wider range of adaptability than 
budding and requires less skill. The seedling may be used cither as 
stock or cion. Nurse plant propagation is a special form of seed- 
ling inarch in which the plants develop a strong aerial root from 
the base of the cion in about 18 months after the union of certain 
tropical fruits (mangosteen on related species of Garciiiia) was 
considered complete and the stock top and seedling root had been 
severed. This root pierces the ground, after which both top and 
roots develop rapidly. The method has not been fully tested, but 
has been announced for other experimenters to test. 

297. Inarching. — Daniel concludes from many series of experi- 
ments with unrelated plants (kidney bean and cocklebur, kidney 
bean and castor bean, sunflower and melon, cabbage and tomato, 
chrysanthemum and tomato, Jerusalem artichoke and black night- 
shade, coleus and acaranthus, cineraria and tomato, aster and 
phlox, coleus and tomato, maple and lilac, zinnia and tomato) that 
"the old idea that only plants belonging to the same family can be 
grafted on each other does not apply to j;rafting by approach." 

The most perfect grafts in these experiments were made between 
plants nearest alike in vigor and vegetation. The nature of the 
tissue of the different plants also played an important role. Tomato 
and cabbage and artichoke and nightshade gave good unions on 
account of their herbaceous nature and rapid growth, while aster 
and phlox, somewhat advanced in growth, and year-old maple 
and lilac united with difficulty except on very young shoots. 

298. Grafting classified as to position. — So far as posi- 
tion is concerned, grafting- may be classified as : 1, root 
grafting, in which only a root is used as a stock; 2, 
crown grafting, in which cions are inserted in stocks at 
the collar; 3, trunk or stem grafting, in which they are 
set in the tree below the branches ; and 4, top grafting, in 



230 PLANT PROPAGATION 

wliich the work is done among the limbs. Methods of 
inserting the cions may vary in all these classes. 

299. Cion graftage is of three general kinds: bridge or 
repair grafting, root grafting and top grafting. 

300. Bridge or repair grafting sometimes erroneously 
called inarching, is not properly a propagation process, 
but it may well be discussed here, because it may be the 
means of saving valuable trees which have been injured 
by mice, rabbits, hogs, human carelessness or accident. 

Unless the girdle has cut through the sap wood it is an 
error to say that bridge grafting is necessary to establish 
connection between root and top ; for the upward current 
of sap passes through the sap wood and not through the 
bark. It is correct, however, to say that the bridge es- 
tablishes a connection between top and root, for the 
downward flow of elaborated sap is through the bark 
layers. As soon as the wound is discovered the operation 
should be performed. If the injury occurs in winter the 
wound should be protected to prevent drying. In spring 
when the buds begin to swell the grafting should be done. 
The operation is performed as follows (Fig. 187) : 

The injured, and perhaps dry bark, on both upper and 
lower edges of the wound is pared back to living tissue. 
Several cions are cut long enough to extend a little 
beyond these trimmed edges, and inserted beneath the 
bark both above and below, thus making little "bridges" 
across the gap. The ends of the cion are cut obliquely, 
to insure fitting of the cambium layers of cions and trunk. 
It is often a help to bow the cions outward slightly, 
because the spring thus formed aids in holding them in 
place. But these and other minor details may be left to 
individual preference. If placed an inch or so apart 
around the trunk, enough cions should succeed to save 
the tree. Both wound and cions should be completely 
covered with grafting wax, preferably made warm so as 
to fit into every chink and thus exclude air and water. 
In a few years the cions will grow together and in time 
lose their identity in a smooth trunk. 



METHODS 01-- ('.KAFTING 



231 



Ijridge ti;rcifting is a makeshift method not to he com- 
pared with proper protection of trunks by keeping- 
animals out of the orchard, by avoiding accumulation of 
grass, straw, etc., in which mice might form nests, and by 
using trunk protectors — splints, tarred or building paper, 
but preferably one-half-inch galvanized hardware cloth 
— around the trunks until the trees have developed rough 
])ark (Fig. 146). Such methods will prevent the necessity 
of bridge grafting except in cases of unusual accident. 




FIG. \i 



-VARIOUS STYLES OF GRAFTING KNIVES 



A, closing blade propagating knife with bone bark lifter; B, C, nursery grafting 
knives, blades stationary; D, pocket grafting knife. 

\\'hen the girdles are narrow — say only one to three 
inch.es — no bridging may be necessary. In such cases, 
however, it is well to err on the safe side by covering the 
wound with grafting clay (half clay and fresh cow 
manure) and bandaging this in with cotton cloth, or by 
using grafting wax as described above. Often such 
wounds will heal over in a single season. 

301, Root grafting, perhaps the most generally prac- 
ticed nursery method, is usually performed by means of 
the whip or tongue graft, a method employed only with 
small stocks generally one or two years old. It is often- 
est done during winter in a cool, humid room. Should 
the air be too dry or too warm, the grafting wood may be 
injured by drying. Never should the work be done near 
a stove or a radiator for this reason. When necessary 



232 



PLAN I 



KOI'ACAIION 




FIG. 189— TONGUE GRAFTING 
How to hold knife. 



to use a warm room, slocks, cions and finished g'rafts 
should l)c kci)t coNcred with damp rags or burlap. 

302. Grafting knives (J'^ig. 188) may be of any thin- 
bladed, sharp-edged style ; at least for whip graft work. 
For herbaceous and other delicate grafting a budding 
knife will answer. It is too light for most other methods. 
The knives popular in nursery practice have fixed wooden 
l)lades and cost about $2.50 a dozen. 

303. Whole-root grafts. — 
When roots of seedling trees 
are used for grafting, just as 
they come from the soil, except 
perhaps for trimming and slight 
shortening, the resulting trees 
are said to be "whole-root 
grafts." To make such trees the 
graft is placed at the crown, so 
the term "root graft" is erro- 
neously used, the proper term 
being "crown graft." The roots are by no means 
"whole" ; first, because a good deal has unavoidably been 
left in the ground when the seedling was dug, and second, 
because the roots must be shortened so the finished graft 
will not exceed nine inches and thus be too long for best 
handling in the nursery. The seedling roots are either 
single tap-roots four to six inches long, or shorter where 
several branches occur near the crown. Usually the lat- 
eral roots are cut ofif close to the main root, otherwise the 
grafts are difficult to make and to handle both in bundling 
and in planting. 

304. Piece-root grafts are made from cions six or seven 
inches long and bits of root only three or two inches long. 
First grade, or number one, apple seedlings often make 
three and sometimes four pieces, though the average would 
probably be not more than 250 piece stocks to the 10(^ 
roots as bought. Number two seedlings will rarely reach 
150 pieces to the 100 roots. When stock is costly or 



MI'Il'llODS OK CRAFTING 



233 



scarce nurserymen sometimes lengthen the cion and 
shorten the roots even to IjX inches. One of the so- 
called advantages thus gained is that the cions develop 
roots after the grafts have been planted. The chief ef- 
fect, then, of the root piece is to act as a nurse until the 
cion is able through its own roots to care for itself. 

Short pieces have been specially popular in the prairie 
states where, because of severe winters, roots as well as 
tops must be hardy. The practice there has been com- 
mon to make cions 8 to 12 inches long, to use a very 
short root piece and to plant as deep as the top bud. By 




FIG. 190— STUDENTS PLANTING ROOT GRAFTS 
Ten thousand to thirty thousand made annually at Pennsylvania State College. 



the time the tree is dug the nurse root will have fallen 
off or may be cut away. Thus trees are secured on their 
own roots and are considered superior to those in which 
the seedling roots are of unknown hardiness. Some 
varieties of apples readily take root from cuttings, but 
root grafting is favored, because there is less troul)le 
from having to operate several methods often at busy 
times of the year. 

305. Making root grafts. — The whip or tongue method 



234 PLANT PKOFAGATION 

is almost universally employed in the making of root 
grafts. A long oblique cut (Fig. 189) is made at the base 
of the cion. Then a sloping and very slightly curved 
cut is made half way between the lower end of this first 
cut and the center of the twig. Its direction is upward 
in the wood but not exactly with the grain. The knife 
blade is forced in not less than one nor more than one 
and one-half inches. Generally both cuts are made 
before the cion is cut from the cion stick. By this means 
the length of cions may be accurately gauged. 

Roots or stocks are cut in the same way, about three 
inches long, except as noted. The top piece is cut at or 
perhaps one-half inch above the crown or collar. 

Stocks and cions are then accurately and snugly fitted 
together so the tongues interlock and with the cambiums 
in contact. It is well that the diameters of stock and cion 
be approximately equal, though large stocks and small 
cions if properly fitted will give good results. Since it is 
usually impossible to have both sides of cion and stock 
come even, the cambiums on only one side need touch 
each other. When sloping and tongue cuts are made 
properly, stock and cion will fit together without over- 
lapping ends of bark, which might not grow together and 
might thus present a point of infection for decay or dis- 
ease. Crown gall (Fig. 182) or root knot, the chief enemy, 
seems unable to get a start except through a wound of 
some kind. Overlapping tongues mean imperfect unions 
and unhealed wounds for one or more years. 

After adjustment, stock and cion are bound together 
with knitting cotton, either waxed or not. Four or five 
turns around each end of the fitted parts are enough. To 
avoid tying, some operators pass the first turn or tw^o 
over the end of the string and draw the other end through 
the notch between stock and cion and snap ofif with a 
sudden jerk rather than a steady pull. Those who use 
waxed thread merely cross the last turn or two over the 
previous turns and break without tying or passing 
through the notch. The least possible quantity of thread 



MliTUODS OF C.UAFTING 



235 



of, say, No. 18 or 20 size should be used — just enough to 
keep the parts in place until the grafts are planted. In 
order that the thread may decay quickly, it should not be 
waxed. Indeed, some propagators contend that binding 
is a disadvantage because they claim that as the callus 
forms and the stem expands the cord cuts the soft tissues 
and thus favors the entrance of crown gall and hairy 
root (Fig. 182). Therefore, they leave the grafts un- 
wrapped, but use extra care in fitting the parts together. 
306. Graft wrapping machines are coming into use in 
some of the larger nurseries because they economize 
time and cost and do work said to be superior to hand 
wrapping. In a circular describing the "Reed-Bell" 
machine the following passage (condensed) occurs : 




FIG. 191~WH1P GRAFTS WITH TOO MUGH CALLUS 



An account carefully kept during several weeks of a 
grafting season shows the machine-wrapped grafts cost, 
on an average, five cents a thousand for twine, 11 cents 
for wrapping, a total of 16 cents a thousand; a saving of 
34 cents a thousand over calico wrai)ping. But what is 
of ni.irc ini])ortanrc, the tension of the thread may be 
adjusted to wrap the graft so tightly that it may be taken 
by the root, thrown or shaken without risk of loosening. 



236 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



oz^rciD 



In many tests, either root or cion has broken, rather than 
loosen or break at the splice. Hence in planting, grafts 
may be handled almost like cuttings without fear of 
breakage, resulting in the saving of thousands of trees. 

307. Root graft storage is the same as storage of cut- 
tings (176, 177), the grafts being tied in bundles of 100, 
each bundle being correctly labeled with the name of the 
variety before being placed in damp, green sawdust, 
sphagnum or sand in a cold but frost-proof room or cel- 
lar until spring. Unless the temperature is below 40 
degrees, and unless well ventilated, there is danger that 
the grafts may heat, rot or sprout and thus be ruined. 
During the several weeks until planting 
time the wounds callus (Fig. 191) and the 
parts grow together so that when planted 
spongy tissue covers the points of contact. 
Planting of root grafts in nurseries is 
done as soon as the ground can be worked 
in spring, the soil being fitted by deep 
plowing (preferably the fall before) and by 
several harrowings before being marked 
out. Three methods of setting are in 
vogue— dibbling, furrowing and planting 
with machines. In each case the grafts are 
set so the top bud of the cion is iust above 
the surface. 

Dibbling (Fig. 23) is done only in small 
nurseries or where only a few grafts are 
to be planted. Besides its slowness it is objectionable 
because of the risk of leaving air spaces around the lower 
ends of the grafts, thus effectively preventing growth. In 
its practice, holes about eight inches deep are made in the 
ground eight or nine inches apart with iron bars or pieces 
of rounded 2x4 scantling six feet long, sharpened to long 
points at their lower ends. In these holes the grafts are 
placed and earth j^ressed against them full length with 
large dibbles (Fig. 192). 



<i::^ 




MKTllODS OI'" CRAFTING 



237 



In the furrow method (Fig. 180) a furrow eight inches 
deep is made with a turning plow, the grafts placed 
against the vertical side, and soil plowed back against 
them. The work is finished either by men tramping the 
earth against the grafts individually or by machine (Fig. 
193) with two wheels set obliquely so as to press the soil 
downward and against the grafts when drawn by horses 
down the rows. Planting machines (Fig. 100) are similar 
to those used for transplanting cabbage, strawberry, 
sweet potato and other truck crops. During the growing 
season the nursery rows 
are cultivated by weekly 
shallow stirrings of the 
surface soil with cultiva- 
tors and by hoeing out 
weeds among the grow- 
ing grafts. At the end of 
the first season's growth, 
fruit trees should be 
three to five feet or even 
taller in some cases. 
Trees of such heights 
are ready for orchard 
planting. Many trees, 
however, are allowed to 
grow till two or even 
more years old. 

308. "Incubator" boxes in 
grafting. — Success has been 

greatly enhanced by an "incubator box," in which the grafts in bun- 
dles or in layers are packed with damp moss and kept at a tempera- 
ture of 7") to 80 for about three weeks l)y which time callusing is good 
rnough to permit removal. The grafts (made in the whip style) 
Iiave their tap-roots shortened to six inches and are potted in six- 
inch pots. \\ hen a few leaves have j.ppearcd, the plants are 
hardened off and iilaced in a frame for the tirst year. This method 
has given ;il)()ut 7.". per cent success. 

309. Root grafting vs. top grafting.— tn West Virginia, King 
apples top-worked on seedlings were in fairly good condition at 20 
years old, whereas others root grafted and set in the same orchard 




FIG. 193— FIRMING NEWLY PLANTED 
GRAFTS 

Center wheels pack earth beside the plants. 



238 PLANT PROPAGATION 

were dead at 10 years. Ten Walldow root-grafted trees were all 
dead but one limb on one tree (most of the 10 died between live 
and 10 years), but the 10 top-worked were thrifty at 20 years. In 
an orchard of 100 root-grafted and 70 top-grafted trees 4-1: per 
cent and 7.2 per cent, respectively, died. 

For propagating apple varieties with weak trunks, top grafting 
or double working is recommended, Tolman sweet being preferred 
as a stock because of its close, smooth bark, strong, yet not rapid 
growth and its great longevity. [These methods are thought to 
aid trees in resisting disease.] 

310. Top grafting, while of widest application to es- 
tal)lished orchard trees, is yet of importance in nursery 
practice. To the atithor it seems this method might be 
more widely utilized by nurserymen as follows: 

311. Top grafting nursery trees. — C. P. Close of Maryland 
started summer apple trees on Northwestern Greening trees. Three 
to six of the best placed and strong limbs were pruned to stubs 
two to three inches long and whip grafted. All other limbs were 
cut off. The grafts were wound with waxed cord and painted with 
liquid grafting wax. The cion tips were also waxed. The roots 
were pruned back to three or four inches just before grafting and 
setting in the orchard. About 90 per cent of the grafts made good 
unions. When one failed a shoot usually developed and was 
budded. This method is believed to be of special use where trees 
of desired varieties cannot be secured or ^re weak growers with 
tender trunks. Prof. Close also suggests that nurserymen might 
use it to re-graft their surplus strong, healthy trees instead of 
burning them, or such trees could be sold at a moderate price for 
the fruit grower to re-graft. 

In top grafting", the stock, cut usually at or al)ove the 
ground surface, is either treated by the cleft or the notch 
method, one or more cions being inserted in the stub. 
Sometimes cions are forced between bark and wood. 
Usually the cions have only one to three buds and are 
rarely longer than fotir inches. 

In orchard (less in nursery) practice unsatisfactory 
trees are top-worked, also trees of strong growth are used 
as bodies for poor straggling growers and those that have 
trunk weakness (309). Thus any desired variety may be 
worked on trees by the individual (irchardist. The 
methc'd is of practically uni\crsal utilit\-, because nearly 
every fruit groAver is sure to ha\e at least some trees that 



Mj'ynioDs 1)1' (;i-;.\i-i'i.\(; 



239 



do not please him but which are loo good to destroy — 
sccd!ing-s. trees untrue to name, shy bearers, others in 
wliich graft or Inid has failed but a sucker developed, 
and so on. Any desired number of varieties may be 
worked upon the same tree, the number being restricted 
only by the available branches or stocks. 

312. Cleft grafting, the method perhaps most widely 
cuiplo\cd outside of commercial establishments, finds its 
chief use in amateur jiractice to work over seedling and 
unsatisfactory trees to 
desired varieties. Every- 
one should know how to 
])crform it, because there 
is no telling when it may 
become useful. Though it 
is, in a sense, not widely 
used commercially, it 
commands rather ex- 
tended treatment in any 
book on plant proi)aga- 
tion. 

The stocks, one-half 
to two inches or i)erhaps 
even larger. sawed 
squarely across with a 
sharp, fine-toothed saw 
and made about six 
inches long, are split Pj 
inches deep with a graft- 1-10.' 194— grafting and budding tool 
ing iron (Fig 194) and 

, . .^ Reading from the lefti Cleft grafting 

tnen weagerl apart Itntn "fon; shears; grafting Icnife; pruning knife; 

<i _ • "^ .. cleft-grafting mallet; in center below, budding 

tne ClonS. usually con- knife; string cutting knife. 

taining three buds, and 

cut wedge shai)ed below are adjusted with a slight out- 
ward slant, one at each side of the slit. The wedge is 
then gently removed so as not to displace the cions. and 
all the wounded surfaces thoroughly waxed over. The 




240 



I'LAXT I'KOPAGATION 



advantage of having two cions is that the healing will be 
quicker. Should both grow, the weaker or poorer placed 
should be cut off cleanly the following spring. 

In making cions the lowest bud should be just above, 
almost between, the cuts that form the wedge. \Vhen 
placed in the stock this bud should point outward, and 
when the wax is applied should be covered completely. 
As the sprout grows it will push through the wax. 

For outdoor grafting of this kind, cion wood, always of 




FIG. 195— SIDE AND TERMINAL GRAFTS 

A, side j;raft of herbaceous plant complete; a, cion; b, stock enlarged; B, 
terminal graft complete; c, cion; d stock. 



only one season's growth, should be cut while the trees 
are fully dormant and stored in an ice house or in some 
other cold place to keep the buds from swelling. The 
operation is best performed just when the trees are break- 
ing into leaf. If the twigs are long and the lower buds 
poorly developed, these should be discarded Because 
cleft grafting is a rigorous operation, preference, wher- 
ever possible, should be given to stocks of one-half to one 



Ml-:i"ll()l)S Ol" (IkAlTlXG 



241 




inch, so the hcalint;' may l)e C(>nii)lclc(l in u single season, 
thus lessenings the chances of decay. In sucii cases only 
one cion is needed. When large stocks are used it may 
be necessary to keep the cleft wedged apart so as not to 
squeeze the cion too much. Such wedges should be 
])laced in the heart wood and cut ofif even with the face 
of the stub. 

313. Grafting irons are of two general forms ; one sug- 
gesting a sickle with its point reversed aufl thickened to 
form a four or five-inch wedge, the 
other a straight shank with blade on 
one side and the wide wedge at the 
end on the other. (Fig. 1!)4. ) The 
former, usually homemade, is more 
of a splitting tool, useful for straight- 
grained wood ; the latter, sokl by 
nursery and seed houses, rather a 
cutting tool suitable for gnarly 

stocks F'fi- 196— NEWLY 

T ' . . , , . SPROUTED CLEFT GRAFT 

In waxmg, tmie may l^e saved m ^ote upward trend of twigs, 
cold weather if the wax is kept wann 

and soft in hot water. A cabinetmaker's glue 
pot is very handy for liquid waxes to be brushed 
on wounds. In weather warm enough to keep 
wax fairly soft, application with the hands is to be pre- 
ferred, since every crevice can thus be surely filled. To 
prevent wax from sticking to the skin grease the hands 
well. 

Solid wax is best applied when worked out by the 
hands into ribbons of, say, one-eighth inch thick. Start- 
ing at the top of the cion, the ribbon is pressed against 
and into the crack down the side of the stub, less being 
needed below than above. Next a ribbon is wound 
around the point where stock and cion join and pressed 
down well. The second cion is similarly treated. 
Finally the parts of the stub still exposed are covered 
Avith a spoon-shaped piece of wax. care being taken to 



242 I'l.AXr I'ROl'ACATIOX 

use plent}^ to fill the top one-fourth inch or more of the 
cleft, and to cover tlie edges all around. I^y this method 
much better covering', to sa}' nothing of time saving, can 
be secured than by dabbing and patting the wax in place. 
Many grafters also put little bits of wax on the upper 
ends of cions if these have been cut off. 

Cleft grafting is the method most used in top working 
large trees, a line of work practiced by manv men who 
charge a fixed rate, usuall}' two or three cents a stub for 
the numl)er of successes toward the close of summer. 
\\ hen the size, condition and shape of trees are favorable 
and when extensi\e preliminar}- pruning is not necessary, 
an expert grafter can make and wax an average of 
perhaps 600 stubs in a 10-hour day. 

In top working an old tree, keen judgment is needed to 
re-shape the top. It is popular opinion that never should 
more than a third of the top be removed and grafted in 
any one year ; a fourth or a fifth v/ould be better. Always 
the general outline of old trees should be followed and 
branches smaller than two inches used when possible, 
since the cions succeed and wounds heal best in such 
cases. 

It is usually advisable to cut the principal stubs at rel- 
atively equal distances from the axis of the tree and then 
select minor side limbs. In handling trees with thick 
tops, care must be exercised to leave sufficient shade to 
protect the bark from sun scald. Better cut out all large 
branches that must be removed before the grafting is 
begun, because they are sure to develop excessively if 
left after the removal of the limbs for grafting. Thus 
bare pole-like limbs may be prevented. It is well to err 
on the safe side by having too many than too few stubs, 
because the excess may be cut out later. Young trees — 
say two or three years old from planting — may be top 
worked much more quickly, because a larger part, in fact 
even the whole top. may be removed at one fell swoop 
and grafted. 



mi:tiic)I)s of gkai-jixg 



-M3 



NcNcr should a huri/oiUal linilj imniediatcly beneath 
atiuiher one l)e grafted, because the tendency is for grafts 
lo grow upward (Fig. ]9()) rather than outward. Sinii- 
hirl}-, when horizontal or nearly horizontal lim1:)s are to 
be grafted, the cleft should never be vertical, always hori- 
;<ontal, so the growths from the cions will have the least 
chance of interfering. This upward tendency of cion 
growth explains the narrow and dense tops of top-grafted 
trees. Hence also the necessity for careful pruning and 
training to open up the tops again. Be- 
cause of this necessity the folly of 
grafting old trees only on large interior 
limbs close to main trunks is apparent. 
Such trees become pomological ex- 
clamation points. 

While to]) grafting is best performed 
when the buds are beginning to swell, 
on account of the rapid healing of 
wounds and the probably greater suc- 
cess at that time, it is usually neces- 
sary to start two or four weeks earlier 
and continue as much later when many 
trees must be worked over by few- 
hands. Late-set cions usually get so 
poor a start they are weak and cannot 
withstand frost the following winter. 

Time may be saved by having three 
men work as a gang, one to prepare 
stubs, a second to cut and set cions 
and the third to do waxing. The 
second, perhaps aided at first by 
makes a lot of cions while the 
"fettinof a start on the stubs. 




FIG. 197— LARGE 
TREE CALIPER 



the third man, 
first man is 
The cions as made 
are dipped in water and when placing begins, are 
carried in an outside breast pocket. The second man 
carries an 18-inch mallet (Fig. 194) handily slung by a 
cord from his wrist. \\'ith it one downward blow on the 



244 I'LANl' I'KorAGATlON 

knife makes the cleft, an upward one loosens the knife, 
a second down below drives home the wedge. The mal- 
let is then dropped, the cions placed, the wedge removed, 
and so on. The third man follows to do the waxing. 

From time to time during spring, summer and fall, the 
grafts should be examined, and those which have 
loosened the wax and exposed the wood should be re- 
waxed to prevent entrance of decay. This should be 
repeated if necessary the following year or until the 
wound has completely healed. Probably wax is better 
than any ofher wound dressing. 

314. Other uses of cleft grafting. — While cleft grafting 
is most used in working over trees in orchards, it has 
other uses. Established grape vines are often cleft 
grafted below ground, the completed work not being 
waxed, and often rooted grape cuttings are similarly 
treated. In these cases the stocks should have clefts 
cut rather than split because of the gnarly wood. Should 
the cion fit too loosely, it must be bandaged or tied to 
hold it in place. 

In grafting fleshy plants, such as cactus (329), cleft 
grafting is popular, the cion being held in position by a 
spine or a pin before being wound with bast or raffia. 
No waxing is needed. Peony roots, summer grafted, are 
similarly handled, but bound with wire because raffia or 
other vegetable tier quickly decays when buried in the 
ground up to the top bud. Dahlias are generally side 
grafted, but sometimes cleft grafted. 

315. Veneer grafting, from the standpoint of union of 
stock and cion, is perhaps the ideal method of grafting, 
because the parts unite quickly and evenly and make 
perfect unions. As handled in America it resembles the 
English side graft, but has a longer stock tongue. Its 
chief application is to potted plants in greenhouses be- 
tween November and March. Stocks which have been 
grown in the open air during summer are potted between 
late August and early October and placed in cool houses 



M I". 



HODS Ol" CKAI'^I'INC. 



-'45 



or pits ])rior lo the operation, wliicli is pcrfornuMl near 
the surface of the g-round. It is not necessary to head 
back stocks until after union is complete. As good suc- 
cess follows the use of dormant as of active cions, but 
plants growing- well must be plunged in moss in a frame 




FIG. 198— PACKING SHRUBS AND TREES IN BALE 

Top, trees and shrubs to be packed. Middle, trees and shrubs placed and 
tied. Bottom, finished bale, the trees and shrubs being wrapped in moss and 
covered with burlap before tying and labeling. 



246 PLANT rUOPAGATION 

and kept cool, moist l)Ut not very wet, until the cions ha\ e 
united well. 

Usuall}' the resulting" plants are kept in pots during the 
following summer, though some few species may be 
transplanted to nursery rows or open borders in spring. 
Japanese maples, rhododendrons and certain coniferous 
plants are propagated in this way. This method has the 
advantage that failures do not injure the stocks, which 
may be re-grafted as often as necessary. Few methods 
are more easily learned or more simple. 

In preparing the stock, a cut about an inch long is 
made downward just through the end and the piece re- 
moved by a diagonal cut at the base, thus leaving a lit- 
tle notch. In this notch, and against the cut edges of 
the stock, the cion is made to fit by cutting in this form. 
Then cion and stock are fitted together, the small tongue 
of bark on the stock serving to cap the base of the cion 
when in position. Tying with raffia completes the work. 
Since no incision is made in the wood, waxing is not 
necessary, except out of doors. 

316. Side grafting (Fig. 19-")) has several modifications, 
])Ut in all the cion is inserted without cutting off the stock. 
In one the stock is cut as for shield budding, but instead 
of a bud a wedge-shaped cion is placed beneath the bark, 
tied and waxed. This form may be used for rather dif- 
ficult subjects, either with dormant cions in spring when 
the leaves have appeared, or with young twigs in late 
summer at the usual shield budding season. By the 
former plan and by frequent heading in of the stock top 
above the cion, salable trees of such subjects as mul- 
berries will be ready in autumn ; by the latter plan jdants 
of ornamental beech will be salable in 14 months. 

In another form used in grafting small grape stocks 
below ground, a narrow thin-bladed chisel (preferably 
with a bent shank) or a knife blade is thrust about an 
inch deep obliquely in the stock and the cion, cut to a 
thin wedge as in cleft grafting, is thrust into the incision 
until the cut surfaces are covered by the bark of the 



Mi-:i'ii()i)S oi" cKAi'iixc 247 

slock. I'viii!^' and waxini;- rmisli the work in the open 
air; tyini;- alone, indoors. I leading;- l)aek the stock aids 
union, >ince it throws more ])Iant lood into tlie cion. 

In a niodihcation of the alK)\c pK-in, used in root-g'raft- 
iui^" ji^raj^es and some otlier phints, tlie stock instead of the 
cion is cut wedge shape and is tlirust into an ol)lique cut 
made upward in the cion. 

317. Crown grafting or inlaying (Fig-. 179) is a form of 
grafting- in wdiich a sniall sli\er of WMiod is cut out of 
the stock and a cion similarly cut is fitted in its place. 
It has special \-alue for grafting- grapes and other "curlv," 
grained woods. Since the necessary tying- is slow, cleft 
•grafting- (812) is better for straight-grained stocks. 
Another objection to inlaying is that the growing cions 
must be tied to pre\'ent being broken off by wind. \\'hen 
this care is taken the method results in good unions and 
excellent growth. 

In the most popular form the stock, being cut off 
scpiare as in cleft grafting, has one or more V-shaped 
grooves, large above and tapering below, and made down- 
ward, either with a knife or an inlaying tool (Fig. 179. G). 
In these grooves the cions cut to fit are placed and tied, 
and, if in the open air. are waxed. The tier should be 
weak and perishable, so it will decay and break before 
danger of strangling the cion might occur. Raffia, bast 
and No. 18 or No. !20 knitting cotton are all good. 
Winding should be vcrv tight. 

318. Modified crown grafting.— Cions lieariiiR two Inuls are cut 
licginning just below the lower bud and on the opposite side. The 
stock is prepared as for splice grafting, the cion being inserted 
under the bark and at the tip of the stock. The union is said to 
form very rapidly and without enlargement. 

319. Notch grafting (Fig. 179D) is a modification of in- 
laying, in wdiich the stock, though cut off as in cleft graft- 
ing, is not split, and in which the wood may or mav not 
be cut to receive the cion. Tt is best used in spring when 
the bark separates readily from the wood. In one case a 
saw with wide-set teeth is used obliquely dowmward 
to make one or more slots in the stock, and cions cut on 



248 TLA NT PROrAGATIOX 

tvvo sides to tit snugly arc inserted and waxed. For best 
results the cut surfaces of cion should not be 
parallel, but slightly wider apart outside than in- 
side, so the cions may be pressed in place both from 
above and from the side toward the center of the stock. 
This form of notch grafting has the advantage of making 
the cions about as firm as in cleft grafting without 
wounding the stock nearly so seriously. 

Two other forms (Fig. 179, A), often called bark graft- 
ing, start the same way, but instead of notching the wood, 
the cion, in one case cut to a thin wedge, is thrust between 
bark and wood, tied and waxed ; in the other, narrow 
strips of bark about one inch long are removed and the 
cions, cut with a shoulder opposite a well-developed bud. 
are set in the notches, tied and waxed. In tying it is well 
to use one-half-inch tape soaked in grafting wax and to 
bind tightly, to prevent injury by accident. Both stub 
and upper tips of cions should be covered with wax. 

320. Smith's improved graft, an English method. — Ac- 
cording to a writer in the Gardeners' Chronicle, cions of 
one or two-year wood of fruit trees are given a three- 
fold grip on the stocks (one-half to one and one-half inch 
in diameter), which becomes covered the first year. Fig. 
184 shows the defects of the old mode of "rind" graft- 
ing; Figs. 184, B, C, show the preparation of the stocks — 
one small, the other large. In Fig. 184, D is the finished 
graft waxed, and in Figs. 184, E, F, the efifect of one year's 
growth. This plan ofifers more than ordinary resistance to 
wind. 

321. Splice grafting the easiest method of all, is 
done by making an oblique cut across both stock and 
cion, as if making the first cut in whip grafting, but not 
forming a tongue in either part. The two pieces, being of 
approximately equal diameter, are placed together so 
their cut surfaces match and are then tied and waxed. 
The method finds its most useful application to small 
tender shoots which cannot be safely split. 



METllOUS OF GRAFTING 



249 



322. Cutting-grafting, as its name implies, is a union 
of a graft with a cutting, a special case of which is root 
grafting already described (305). Plants hard to propa- 
gate by cuttings are often grafted upon cuttings of other 
varieties or related species which root readily. When 
the work is done outdoors in spring the grafts are usually 
ready to have the stocks removed by fall, the cuttings 
having rooted ; and when done in fall under glass they are 
ready by spring. The nurse plant may be removed little 
by little or all at once, according to 

the case in hand. A modification 
of the method is to let the cion ex- 
tend downward into wet moss or a 
bottle of w^ater (Fig. 199). This is 
used where stock and cion are more 
or less uncongenial or are slow to 
unite. Various birches, magnolias 
and mulberries are handled in this 
way. 

323. Grafting tubes (like laboratory test 
tubes), about ^V^ inches long and one 
inch wide have been used with good re- 
sults for propagating shrubs and trees at 
the Swedish Agricultural College. Each 
graft-cutting is covered with a tube, the 
lower end of which is pressed into damp 
moss. Any convenient method of grafting 
is used (whip, splice, etc). Grafting wax 

was abandoned because as good results were secured without it. 
The plan gave good results in sand beds, flower pots and in open 
air. Among the subjects which did well out of doors were rose, 
maple, alder, birch, beech, fir, gooseberry, currant. 

324. Herbaceous grafting, mainly by means of veneer, 
saddle and cleft methods, is very easy. Any plant with 
semi-succulent stems, such as coleus, chrysanthemum, 
geranium and the shrub-like begonias, can be grafted. 
Both stocks and cions should have passed the watery 
stage and become as firm as for the making of cuttings. 
After adjusting the two parts the graft should be bound 
with raffia, placed in a propagating frame and kept in a 



H| 


JLi 



FIG. 199— BOTTLE 
GRAFTING 

Used for difficult subjects. 



250 



I'LAA' T i'KOi'AGATK) N 



humid atmosphere for perhaps a week. Wax is thus dis- 
pensed with ; indeed, it is thought to be a detriment. 

Some propagators bind moss around the wounds, but 
there is likelihood that roots will develop as in pot layer- 
ing and the parts fail to knit together unless they are 
first bandaged. It is possible to giaft shrubs and trees 
while the shoots are herbaceous, but this plan is not 
popular. Conifers (pines and spruces), and some de- 
ciduous trees (walnut) are occasionally saddle or cleft 
grafted in mid to late spring, bound with waxed cheese- 
cloth and shaded with manila sacks. 




a 

FIG. 200— UNCO.M.V.ON METHODS OF BIDDING 
A, annular or ring; b, terminal; c, plate; d, H-budding; e, Mute; f, prong; g, chip. 



' Ct, 



Experiments at Cornell University have shown that the wood 
must be somewhat hardened to secure best results. Soft, flabby 
shoots are likely to be injured in the operation, and the union does 
not occur readily. Cleft and veneer styles were most satisfactory. 
In most cases it is necessary only to bind the parts with raffia. 

325. Grafted potatoes.— E. Laurent, a Belgian investigator, 
grafted light and colored flesh potatoes on each other by various 
methods, but after three years of experimenting found no color 
from a violet variety in the tubers of the light-fleshed stock. 

326. Grafting beets has been experimentally done to increase 
the seed yield of desiral)le varieties. The mother beet root is 
sprouted. When the off'-sets at the crown are about three-fourths 
inch long they are removed with some of the flesh and inserted in 
new beets just below the crown, in cuts cnrresi)onding to the form 
of the cions. In one experiment 4S oft'-sets were secured from one 
"mother" and 31 of these grew into lirst-class plants, each of which 
vieldcd a normal amount of seed. 



MiriMlODS OI' C.RAFTINC. 25 I 

Beets are very easy to graft, nearly every graft has been suc- 
cessful in European experiments. The color boundary line between 
stock and cion is clearly marked, red varieties not blending with 
white ones. Grafted beets are slightly dwarfed, as are also other 
plants, thus supporting Daniel's contention that one efifect of grafting- 
is to dwarf growth, another to retard the flowering season and in 
some cases to render plants more subject to pest attack. Potatoes 
witli smooth, green skin and deep eyes grafted on those with thick, 
rough, lirown skin and shallow eyes often bore both kinds of 
tul)ers, stimetimes parts of each kind on the same tuber. 

327. Potato grafted on tomato experimentally produced no tubers 
and the tops, although they bloomed freely, bore no seed balls. 
Tomato on potato bore a fair crop of apparently normal tomatoes 
and a few tubers which, however, did not grow when planted. 

328. Eggplant grafted. — \'an Hermann asserts that the 
only practical \va}- to grow eggplant during the rainy sea- 
son in Cuba is to graft it on Solannni tortnm, a wild 
species employed by the Cuba Experiment Station. 

329. Cactus grafting. — Grafting, says an Iowa experimenter, 
hastens the flowering season of cacti, places trailing species on 
strong stocks at any desired height where their flowers may be 
seen to better advantage. It also prevents injuries from over- 
watering. Healthy stocks and cions readily unite when in the 
actively growing season for them. The beginning of this period is 
best. Top working alone sh(juld be done ; root grafting never, 
since the cion will itself strike root if in contact with soil. Cleft 
grafting is most popular, but whip grafting may be used with better 
results on slender species, and saddle grafting with thick ones. 
Ball species maj' be cut square across and the similarly cut cion 
litted on top. Both should be about the same size. Strings over 
the cion and under the \)oi will hold the two in place. Another 
favorite way is to hollow the cion, sharpen the stock and tit the 
two. somewhat as in flute l)udding. \\'axing is unnecessary. 
Watering should be sparingly done for a few days. Grafting greatly 
increases the number of flowers, hastens the flowering season and 
often augments plant vigor by checking the downward flow of 
food. 

330. Mixed graftage, a French method, differs from the 
ordinary methods in that a few shoots are allowed to 
grow permanently upon the stock but kept pruned suf- 
ficiently to i)re\ent their seriously checking the growth 
of the cion. P)\' its means a successful union of sweet 
cherry (Pntinis a-riiim) and cherry laurel (Pniuiis laiir- 
occrassus) as a stock was readily made. This is con- 



252 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



sidered a difificult one, because the former is deciduous, 
the latter evergreen. 

Daniel, the author, concludes from his experiments 
that: 1. Mixed graftage should be used with plants pre- 
senting marked differences, as between evergreen and 
deciduous subjects ; 2, the stock does not influence the 




FIG. 201— GRAFT-PLANTING METHODS 



A, planting with dibble; D, dibble pushing soil against graft f; D, position of 
dibble for next thrust of soil; S, loose soil in bottom of hole; B, planting in 
trenches. 



cion as much as in ordinary graftage ; 3, such character- 
istics as may be attributed to environment (height, vigor, 
resistance to parasites, etc.) are affected less by the stock 
also; but, 4, characteristics peculiar to the variety of the 
stock (flavor, form of fruit, color of flowers, etc.) mix 
with those of the cion much more readily by this method 
than by the ordinarv methods. 

331. End-to-end grafting, a new and not fully tested 



METHODS OF GRAFTING 253 

French method, gave a low percentage of successes but 

excellent unions in California. In operating it stocks 

and cions of equal size are cut at slight angles (about 70 

degrees), and each pair fitted together by a piece of 

stiff galvanized wire pushed into the pith of both parts. 

Bioletti considers this method "especially promising for 

machine grafting." 

In experiments at the Good Hope Agricultural College, it was 
found that skillful grafters could make oOO end-to-end grafts an 
hour, while 100 an hour with the tongue graft was quick work. 
Students who had never grafted before could make 120 an hour, 
against 15 tongue grafts. In the field the two methods produced 
about equal percentages of vines when made by skillful men. Un- 
skilled men secured almost as good results with end-to-end grafts 
as did the skilled men, while the tongue grafts proved almost total 
failures. Roots were less numerous on the cions of end-to-end 
grafts, thus facilitating removal. Results on the whole favored the 
end-to-ond method. 

332. Grafting green grape vines has been successfully practiced 
by J. Zawodny, a German experimenter, who did the work in May, 
June and early July, when the stocks were in luxuriant growth, by 
making the graft obliquely through a node. 

333. Saddle grafting (Fig. 168) is especially useful for 
propagating small growing shoots. The cion, split by 
an upward cut, is placed upon the stock cut on each side 
to form a wedge. Tying and waxing finish the job. Its 
most popular application is to cions with terminal buds 
with wood too soft or weak to be easily whip grafted. 

334. Adjuvant graft.— Couderc of France contends that the life 
of grape vines may be prolonged by using two stocks to one cion. 
His experiments show that companion stocks have a greater period 
of duration than either of the stocks used alone. By using a series 
of "adjuvant" stocks he has flowered and fruited vine cuttings the 
hrst year. This was accomplished by grafting a stock having one 
internode and a good root system under each eye of the cutting, 
which remains horizontal. The plan is suggested to overcome 
phylloxera attacks, which the author claims occur even with 
American species. 

335. Fruit bud grafting.— C. Trebignand, a French investigator, 
has found that vigorous trees which fail to produce fruit may be 
grafted w-ith fruit buds from other trees in August or September 
and fruit obtained the following season. 

336. Grafted conifers, especially pines and firs, are never as suc- 
cessful as seedlings, because they rarely niake a perfect leader and 
symmetry is sacriliced. Thuias, ])i()tas, junipers, cypresses and ret- 



-254 



I'LAX I I'ROPAGATION 



inosporas may be usefully increased by grafting. Stock for first 
and second is American arbor vitse (Tliuia occidentalis) ; for the 
next two red cedar (Jnni^cnis z'irginica) ; for cypress family use 
funereal upright cypress {Cypressiis semperi'irens) ; for larch use 
common larch. 

In March on stocks esta1)lislied in pots use "leader" cions; cut 
stocks about half tlirough, make a tongue half way down the cut. 
Prepare cion similarly, leaving growing point intact. Fit stock and 
cion accurately, bind with raffia, cover with prepared clay (28o) 
and place under staging for a couple of days. Then smear union 
again with clay and plunge in a propagating case for a couple of 
weeks. Avoid excess of water, but sprinkle occasionally with a 
fine rose. After hardening place in nursery bed with soil heaped 
over union. To prevent annoyance from needles, cut with shears; 
don't pull out. 

337. Mango budding, according to G. W. Oliver, an American ex- 
perimenter, is best done when the new leaves are not far enough 
developed to show bright green, because the bark is then easiest re- 
moved. The thick part of the stem, a few inches above ground, is 
the best place, a rectangular piece of bark about IVi inches long 
lieing removed for a similar piece of two-year-old wood containing 
a central bud of the desired kind to replace it. After fitting the 
bud, a light coat of liquid grafting wax, rich in resin, is brushed 
on and the bud tied in place with raffia. The stem just above the 
bud is then wound with an 8-inch strip of wrapping paper and tied 
in place as a protection. As stocks, moderate sized two to three- 
year-old seedlings are best. Stems one inch or slightly more give 
liest unions. 

Higgins of Hawaii finds that patcli budding (Oliver's method) 
is superior to inarching, but can be done only when both bud wood 
and stock are in active growth, a condition rarely found in both 
at the same time. Shield budding with inverted T gives better 
results and is quicker than patch budding. It may be used when the 
bud wood is not in active growth. 



CHAPTER X\'1I 
METHODS OF BUDDING 

338. Bud grafting is so special a form of graftage that 
it is generally called biiddiiii:;. It is a form in which a 
single bud with little or no wood is applied to the cam- 
bium of the stock (always growing in normal position), 
usually beneath the bark. Alany species of plants are 
propagated by either l)udding or grafting; others do 
better by one and not the other method, but there is no 
general rule l)y which decision can be made, though 
thin-barked plants with copious sap generally succeed 
best when grafted or when buds are used at the time of 
smallest sap flow. Thus "throwing out," "strangula- 
tion" or "drowning" of the bud may be obviated. 

Budding is widely popular for propagating fruit trees, 
especialh' the stone fruits, which are almost always 
budded rather than grafted. Roses, lilacs and many 
ornamental trees are similarly treated. In nurseries it 
is perhaps more extensively employed than is grafting. 
The usual season for budding of peach and plum in the 
North is from midsummer to early fall ; in the South a 
month or six weeks earlier. I^hus southern nurserymen 
have an adxantage over northern (^nes. because they save 
practically a year's time, and the trees, if well grown, are 
just as good as northern grown trees. June budded 
trees may be fall planted in the South the same season 
as budded ; later ones not till the following fall, because 
the buds remain dormant till sjjring. 

339. Dormant budding in early s])ring is done to a 
limited extent in a few southern states. In the North, 
cherries and apples are usually btidded in June and July, 
though sometimes not till August. \\'ith fully dormant 
buds saved as for grafting cions (307), budding may be 

255 



256 PLAXT PROPAGATION 

done as soon as the bark loosens in spring-. It is essential 
to speed and success that the bark lift readily from the 
wood. Clear, dry weather also favors the work. 

340. Shield budding is by far the most important 
method practiced in America. It is so called from the 
form of the bark of the cion bud — an elongated oval. In 
popular parlance the bud with its surrounding bark as cut 
is called the "bud" (Fig. 202). Essentially the operation 
consists in inserting a bud cut from a twig of the desired 
variety beneath the bark of a stock cut in the form of a 
T or a cross and lifted gently to receive it. The bud is 
then tied in place, but the binding cut in ten days or two 
weeks, to prevent "strangulation" of the bud, which 
pushes into growth when conditions are favorable. 
Shortly after, the top of the stock is cut off, so all food 
from the root will develop the budded top. 

In many respects the small details differ in the hands 
of different budders ; for instance, height and length of 
vertical cut, position of cross cut, cutting of bud and 
method of tying. 

341. When stocks are budded. — Peach and other stone 
fruit seedlings, being of rapid growth, are usually large 
enough in the North to bud a little after midsummer. 
Apple and pear seedlings grow one year where the seeds 
are sown. The following s])ring they are transplanted 
to other nursery rows after the unavoidable shortening 
of roots. All that grow large enough between June and 
September are budded that season. The age of the stock 
is then forgotten, because it is of no consequence in the 
finished tree, whose age dates from the time when the 
buds or cions grow. Thus peach budded this year in 
the North in August starts to grow next spring, and by 
the following November has become a "one-year" tree, 
though 15 months have elapsed since the budding; but a 
tree budded in the South in June of this year becomes a 
"one-year" tree when only five months old in November 
this year. In each case the trees may be sold for fall or 



Mirr lions oi- iu'ddinc 



257 



for s])riiig" planting- as "one-year" trees, though the south- 
ern stock is usually not ready soon enough for fall ])lant- 
ing in tiie North. 

Apple, pear and other transplanted stocks are 
"dressed" or trimmed prior to setting- in the nursery; 
that is. both root and top are shortened a quarter or a 
third. This i)revents the re-formation of tap roots and 




FIG. 202— THE PROCESS OF SHIELD BUDDING 

1, Making vertical cut; 2, making cross or T cut; 3, cutting the bud; 4, bud 
inserted in stock; 5, tying; 6, finished work with bud tied in place. 

makes the roots branch. It also favors the development 
of a sturdy top, because the number of shoots is reduced. 
The effect of the former development is to make a more 
easily dug and transplanted tree; that of the latter, one 
more readily handled. 

342. Preparing the stocks. — To be budded without dif- 
ficultv stocks should be one-half inch in diameter or 
larger, though in nursery practice those three-eighths 



258 



PLANT PROPAGATIOX 




inch are also budded. A day or two before the budding, 
boys or girls rub the leaves and twigs off the lower four 
to six inches of the stems, so they will not impede the 
budders. If longer ahead of budding than three days, 
the bark will "set" and thus hinder speed in budding. 
Buds are set as near the ground as the operator can work 
— -one inch or two. This brings the union so low that 
the unavoidable crook in the stem is inconspicuous. It 
also permits setting the tree in the orchard slightly lower 
than in the nursery. Best results in the northern hemi- 
sphere are claimed to 
follow setting the buds 
on the north side of the 
stocks so the sun will 
not shine directly on 
them. Doubtless in the 
southern hemisphere, 
the southern side will 
give best results. 

343. Budding wood 
for summer work al- 
wavs consists of well- 
hardened wood of the 
present season's devel- 
opment and of the va- 
riety it is desired to 
propagate. The twigs, 
which should be about 
one-fourth inch in diam- 
eter at their bases, are 
severed from the par- 
ent trees and the leaf 
blades cut off. The leaf stems may be shortened to 
about one-half inch so as to serve as handles when the 
buds are being placed in the stocks. After trimming, the 
twigs are called "bud sticks." They may bear half a 
dozen to two dozen buds developed enough for use, but 




FIG. 203— SECURING BUD STICKS 

Such wood should be cut from bearing trees 

to be sure of variety. 



MI'.IIIODS ()1- lU'DDIXC 



259 



the average is probabl}- al)uut ten. The leal l)uds near 
the tips of the twigs are generally not mature enough to 
be safe to use, so the}- and the flower buds are thrown 
away. Flower buds are plumper and more pointed than 
leaf buds, so are easily recognized. 

The buds are cut from the bud sticks with a thin- 
bladed, razor-edged knife, usually as follows: With the 
bud stick held in one hand (Fig. 202), the knife is started 
about three-fourths inch alcove or below the bud, accord- 
ing to the preference of the operator, and a cut through 
the bark into the wood is made toward the operator's 
body until a bud with about an inch of bark and wood is 
almost severed from the twicf- The knife is then with- 




FIG. 204— VARIOUS STYLES OK BUDDING KNIVES 

A, florists'; B, D, knives with closing blades and bone bark lifters; C, E, 
closing Mades without bark lifters; F, G, H, styles of stationary bladed nursery 
buddin? knives. 



260 PLANT PROPAGATION 

drawn and the other buds treated in the same way until 
all that are fit for budding have been cut but left attached 
to the twigs. The bud sticks are then usually dipped in 
water, wrapped in wet cloth and taken to the nursery row 
for budding. Many operators prefer to cut the buds 
fresh as they are needed, because there is less risk of 
drying. The chief advantages of the plan outlined are 
that it saves time, and less high-priced labor than that of 
the actual budders can do the work. The buds as needed 
are cut from the bud stick with a single motion. 

For years budders have disagreed as to the advisability 
of removing the little chip of wood beneath the bark of 
the bud as cut from the bud stick. No experiments seem 
to have been tried to prove its use or harm. Many 
budders pry it out with the tip of the knife blade or by 
twisting the stick as the bud is being cut. No difiference 
is apparent in the resulting trees whether or not this 
wood is removed. It would seem that the wood might 
help to hold moisture until the bud has united with the 
stock, but that if removed the cambium layers would 
grow together more quickly. If the bud is cut thick, 
the older parts of the wood doubtless do not unite, though 
the younger parts probably do ; so it may be well to cut 
at least this dense part. 

344, Budding knives are of many styles, and operators 
have their pronounced preferences, but probably the one 
most used in the big commercial nurseries for field vv^ork 
is in Fig. 204. It costs about $1.75 by the dozen. The 
budding knife should be made of the finest steel, have a 
thin blade about two inches long; the cutting edge, kept 
razor sharp, should extend from front to back in a quarter 
circle. The blade should be set in a light, convenient 
handle, which may be stationary or slotted to receive it.. 
The straight part of the blade is used for general pur- 
poses, such as bud cutting, and the curved end for making 
incisions in stocks. Many budding knife handles extend 
into a thin bone, ivory or celluloid, spatula-shaped blade 



^n■:TIT()l)s ()!■ m-nnixo 267 

used to lift the hark of tlie stocks. Prol)al)ly the great 
majority of expert hudders ha\e no use for such a device; 
they raise the bark witli the knife hhule. 

345. Making the incisions. — In making- a sk)t for the 
bud to tit in, two cuts are necessary. Neither must pene- 
trate deeper than through the l)ark. The first is usually 
placed near the upper end of the second, with which it 
makes a cross. The second generally made extends 
about one and one-half inches lengthwise of the stock, the 
rounded end of the knife being used. Some budders pre- 
fer to place the cross cut below (270). So far as results 
are concerned, one is probably as good as the other. 
Placing' the bud in position may be easier for one man to 
"bud up" and for another to "bud down." After the 
corners of bark in the angles of the cross are lifted 
slightly to split the liark from the wood through the 
cambium, the bud ma\' be inserted and gently pressed 
into place by the fingers, which grasp the leaf petiole 
handle. If any part of the bud sliver protrudes from the 
slot, it should be cut ofif. for unless the entire piece is 
closely applied to the stock wood and is covered by the 
bark, it may make a poor union, or not unite at all, with 
the stock. When the bark lifts readily no such trouble 
will be experienced, for the bud will slip into place with- 
out trouble (Fig. 202). 

346. Tying follows. — Raffia (292), the most widely used 
tier, is cut in lengths of about a foot prior to the work. 
Until raffia displaced it, bass (291) was the leading tier, 
though carpet warp, yarn and other soft strings were also 
used, and are still to some extent. The hank of raffia, 
held near its middle between both hands, is placed against 
the lower end of the vertical cut. The hands are then 
moved to the rear of the stock where they exchange the 
ends, which are made to cross each other. The crossing 
is repeated in front over the cut but higher up than the 
first round. So on till the whole cut is covered, only 
the bud being left visible. Three or four double rounds 



262 



PLANT rROPAGATION 



complete the ligature, which is tied at the top. In another 
method of tying, the raffia is wrapped around the stock 
twice or thrice at the bottom of the bud and twice at the 
top, where it is tied in a single knot. Some operators can 
make better speed by passing one end of the raffia under 
the other at the last round. The bud itself must not be 
covered, else it might "strangle." 

347. Cutting the ligatures. — Strangling may even yet 

occur unless the raffia around the buds is 
cut within three weeks of the budding. The 
usual way is to draw a budding knife up- 
ward through the windings on the side of 
the stock opposite the bud and let the cut 
pieces fall off. Since the tier is very in- 
elastic, it will not "give" with the growth 
of the stem and the setting bud, so, unless 
it is cut it will either kill the bud or force 
it to "break," i. e., grow. For success 
in the cold climates, however, the bud, to 
winter over, must be wholly dormant until 
spring, otherwise it will probably winter- 
kill. Stocks which, at tier-cutting time, are 
shriveled and brown instead of green and 
plump, may be re-budded. If warm and wet 
weather in the fall starts the buds there is 
little remedy, though some sprouts may be saved by head- 
ing them back; others may survive the winter if covered 
by snow. 

348. Spring care of budded stock. — As soon as the 
stocks begin to put forth leaves in spring their tops 
should be cut off 4 to 6 inches above the bud. which will 
still be dormant. Thus all plant food taken up by the 
roots will be forced into the bud. In about two weeks 
when the bud has developed a shoot an inch or more long 
the stub of the stocks is cut within one-half inch above 
the Inul. Some nurservmen cut the stocks only once. 




BUD SPROUT 
TIED TO STOCK 



..A 



Mi:i'iioL).s oi' iiui)i)i.\(; 



263 



hut a larger enough percentage of successes follow the 
two-cutting plan to make it fairly popular. 

In good soil and with a good root system, the huds, 
depending on the species, will develop shoots 2 to 5 feet 
tall, or even more by fall. Sprouts must be rul)bed off 
the stocks whenever they appear and the bud shoot en- 
couraged to grow straight and forkless, and all the leaves 
on the shoot should be allowed to remain. With 
crooked and weak-growing varieties tying may be nec- 
essary. For convenience in doing this work stock stubs 
are often left on orna- 
mental trees, seldom on 
fruit trees, because of its 
expense, to act as stakes 
against which to tie the 
l)ud sprouts (Fig. 20r)). 
Fxcept in mixed graft- 
ing (380), shoots on the 
stock must not be allow- 
ed to grow or they will 
rob the bud shoot of 
food and develop even 
stronger shoots. Toward 
the end of the growing 
season these stubs must 
be carefully cut close to 
the union of bud and 
stock. 

349. In "June bud- 
ding," stocks one-fourth to one-third inch in diam- 
eter are favored. Instead of stripping the lower 
part of the stocks completely of leaves, as in north- 
ern budding, a few leaves are left below the point of bud- 
ding to serve as feeders. Because of the heat of the soil 
surface, in hot, dry climates, it is customary to place the 
buds an inch or two higher than in northern practice. 
To avoid the sudden and violent check to growth which 




FIG. 2U6- -COLD BUX .MhTHul) 
OF STORING ClON WOOD 

The wood is kept cold till needed. The 
method gives better results than the ordi- 
nary ones. 



264 PLANT PROPAC.ATION 

would follow removal of the whole top early in the sea- 
son, several cuts of the top are made so the bud shodt will 
not have too great a strain put upon it. Sometimes the 
stock tops are bent over, or broken (270), twisted or par- 
tially stripped of leaves and twigs or otherwise treated so 
the bud shoot will gradually accustom itself to its work. 
In due time, of course, the stock is cut oiT. The ligatures 
must be cut sooner than in the North, say in a week to 
ten days, depending on how vigorously the stock is grow- 
ing. Instead of ratfia or bast, strips of somewhat elastic 
cotton are sometimes em])loyed as tier, because they 
"give" more with trunk expansion. 

350. Summer budding of apples. — Apples, pears and 
other tree fruits are often summer budded, but the stocks 
have grown in the nursery row a year or two. Some- 
times the buds used are dc^rmant, having been cut and 
stored, like cions for cleft grafting (312), sometimes cur- 
rent season's growth. This plan is annually becoming 
more popular, partly because the nurserymen think they 
thus get better trees than by grafting and partly because 
the nurseryman is thus enabled to keep his men busy to 
l)etter advantage by extending the work over a longer 
period. For top working trees, either those that failed 
to "take" the previous season or those established in or- 
chards, this method also has its obvious advantages. 
The buds grow as do cions in cleft grafting, so a full 
season's time is gained. 

351. Plate budding (Fig. 200) — Instead of making one 
longitudinal cut in the stock, two of equal length are 
made parallel. The upper ends are then joined by a cut 
and the bark lifted, thus forming a rectangular flap still 
attached below to the stock and 1 inch to V^ inches long. 
A bud on a piece of bark, but with no wood, is cut to fit 
the space, inserted, covered by the flap which is made to 
cover it, and tied. From then forward treatment is the 
same as for shield budding (340). Two slight modifica- 
tions of this method may be noted : The flap may be 



MKTIUJDS OF lU'DDlXG 265 

split SO a part may be fitted on each side of the bud, or it 
may be shortened so the bud itself will not be covered, 
l)ut only that part of the cion bark l)elovv the bud end. 

352. Prong, spur or twig budding is shield budding, 
modified by the use of a short spur or twig instead of a 
bud and removal of the upper part of the stock. The bark 
of both stock and cion are cut in the same way. English 
walnuts while dormant are often budded tlnis in Cali- 
fornia. This form resembles grafting in the removal of 
stock above bud at the time of budding, and in the use 
of grafting wax over wounds to prevent drying and en- 
trance of decay. In budding thick-barked subjects, such 
as walnut, wood beneath the bud bark must be almost all 
removed, so the cambium layers will come in better con- 
tact than if it is left. The little piece of wood that ex- 
tends up into the prong should not be cut out. 

353. H-budding (Fig. 200) is a form of plate budding in 
which the cross-cut is made about midway between the 
ends of the longitudinal cuts, thus forming two flaps be- 
tween which the bud is placed. Because the bud may 
thus be covered both above and below, a better fit of bud 
to stock can be secured. 

354. Chip budding (Fig. 200) consists in cutting a mor- 
tise in a small stock and inserting a one-bud chij) of bark 
with a little wood cut to fit snugly. This is held in po- 
sition by tying, and is usually waxed. It is used while 
the stock is dormant in spring before the bark will slip. 

355. Flute budding (Fig. 200) is a development beyond 
plate budding, because in it a rectangular piece of bark 
in the stock is removed entirely and replaced by a bud- 
bearing piece of bark cut to fit the space. As a rule this 
work is done in late spring on plants with very thick bark. 
Tying is. of course, needed as in shield budding (340). 

356. Veneer budding, a synonym for flute budding. 

357. Annular or ring budding (Fig. 200), the same as 
flute budding except that a ring of bark is removed from 
the stock, which must be rather small, bv makinc: two 



266 PLANT rUOPACATlON 

parallel cuts one-half inch to one inch apart around a 
stock, joining these by a cut at right angles, removing the 
ring, fitting in a bud-bearing piece of bark and tying as 
in shield budding. This method is popular for budding 
pecan and walnut. The work is best done in summer 
when the bark peels readily. The buds must be taken 
from twigs rather younger than the stocks. 

358. Whistle or tubular budding, another modification 
of flute budding, consists in slipping off an 
inch or so of bark at the end of a shoot and replacing it 
with a similar piece bearing a bud of a desired variety. 

359. Budding old peach trees — For old peach trees that re- 
quired new wood an Australian experimenter sharpened a piece 
of bone like a lead pencil, fitted it to a handle, made incisions in the 
bark of 10-year-old trees and fitted buds in the holes. The buds 
were held in position by small pieces of leather, held in place by 
upholsterers' enameled gimp pins, which did not rust and which 
liecame loose as the buds swelled. An advantage claimed is that 
the method does not interfere with bearing while the buds are being 
matured. Neither clay nor wax is needed. 

360. Stock sucker's influence — H. M. Stringfellow of Texas found 
that when a peach tree was budded high (18 inches) and developed 
a sucker below the bud, the branch from the bud gradually failed 
and died. He also noted that where cions on budded stock were 
planted deep enough to send out their own roots, dwarling and 
even killing of the stock roots followed. He therefore recommends 
high budding (12 to 15 inches from the ground), in order to secure 
long-lived budded trees, because this, he contends, will allow rea- 
sonably deep planting without burying any part of the cion. 

361. Winter budding of peaches in Texas, according to R. H. 
Price, was experimentally done by the following method : Cuttings 
were taken when the sap was dormant. A slide of bark was cut 
down the stock, but left attached at the lower end. Part of the 
top of the loose strip was then cut off, the bud of a desired variety 
fitted over the cut place and l>ound on firmly with raffia. The 
stocks were then kept in sphagnum moss till spring, when they 
were planted. All but one of the 50 made strong shoots during 
the growing season. 

362. Top working peach. — When peach trees begin to 
fruit and are found worthless, the question is. Will it pay 
to top work them? Experience has ])roved that usually 
time and money will be saved by pulling them out if over 
four or five years old rather than "dehorning" them, 
waiting till Avater sprouts or other limbs in desira1)le po- 






METHODS OF JiUODlXG 267 

sitions are large enough to ])ud, and then running the risk 
of failure of the buds to "take" and of possible Ujss through 
accident or disease. New trees require only three or four 
years to come into bearing; but at least as much time is 
required with top-worked trees plus the likelihood of 
ha\ing poorer trees in the end. 



I 



268 



PLANT PROPAGATION 




FIG. 207— METHODS OF DIGGING NURSERY STOCK 

I, An extreme case of "the good old way" with nursery spsdes. 2. Tht 
new with fteani power and wire cables. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
NURSERY MANAGEMENT 

363. Value of nursery stock. — From the preface 
the extent of the nursery business in the United States 
may be seen. The acre return in 1009 is averaged at 
$261. Doubtless many nurseries paid less than this, and 
probably a fair proportion paid more. If 10,000 good 
trees can be grown to the acre and sold at an average of 
20 cents (and they can be), the return would be $2,000, 
which, divided by four years — two for stock growing and 
two for rest — the income would be $500 a year. Ex- 
penses are heavy, however, partly because nursery lands 
usually command high rent (sometimes $100 a year), and 
partly because of the necessary equipment and the skilled 
labor needed in the business, as may be judged by the 
general discussion in this volume, so there is not as much 
money in nursery stock as may at first appear. 

364. Laying out a nursery. — Since horse cultivation is 
necessary, nurseries should be laid out with turning 
ground 12 feet wide at opposite ends of the rows, and 
cross alleys at convenient distances both for the removal 
of stock and for labeling. In most nurseries the rows 
vary from 100 to 300 feet long, but in large ones they are 
sometimes a quarter of a mile long. 

365. Shelters are advisable where the prevailing winds 
are strong. They help protect young bud and graft 
shoots from being broken or blown off and aid the trees 
to grow straight. Where natural shelter — a hill or a 
wood to windward — is not available, mixed shelter belts 
of deciduous and evergreen trees, placed beyond their root 
reach of the nursery rows, will serve well. Low grounds, 
though sheltered, are not desirable because usually 
frosty. Everything that will cause snow drifts among 
the stock should be avoided. 

269 



270 



I'LANT PROPAGATION 



366. Digging stock may be done at any time the ground 
can be worked after the leaves fall and before the buds 
swell in spring, except when the temperature is below 
freezing. In a small way nursery spades may be used to 
lift individual trees. On a larger scale a furrow may be 
thrown away from the trees on each side of the rows 
and then spades used. In big commercial nurseries the 
tree digger (Fig. 152) is drawn by horses (Fig. 213) or by 
wire cables attached to drums operated 1)y steam or gaso- 




FIG. 208— MODERN METHOD OF DIGGING NURSERY STOCK 

The el cables wound on the drums by the engine draw the digger from 
end to end of the nursery rows. 

line engines. Nursery spades of steel and wood and 
costing several dollars each, and made strong enough 
to stand heavy strains, are generally worked in pairs or 
threes (Fig. 207) around and a foot or more from the bases 
of the trees. The blades, at least 15 inches long, are 
thrust full depth in the soil under the trees, which are 
lifted by leverage, care being taken to cut or break the 
roots as little as possi])le. 

367. Nursery soils and their care. — Best nursery stock 
is usually produced on heavy soils, those in which clay 
rather than sand predominates. Of course, if level, so 



NUKSi:UV MANAGIiMENT 27I 

much the better. Thorough drainage, either natural or 
artificial, is essential because nursery trees "don't like wet 
feet." At least one season prior to planting nursery 
stock, the land should be devoted to some (preferably in- 
ter-tilled) farm crop — corn, potatoes, mangels, cabbage, 
etc. — so it will have had deep and thorough cultivation. 
Since the nursery crop usually requires two or more 
years, the land must be in prime condition when the trees 
are started in it. Otherwise the crop will be mediocre, 
if not poor. Since sales of fruit trees, at least, depend 
upon age, size, caliper, etc., growth must be sturdy and 
quick; with ornamental trees and shrubs price is fixed 
scarcely at all by age, but more by the size of subject. 
Hence land too poor to produce good fruit trees may yet 
be suitable for producing ornamental stock. 

It is generally conceded that soil which has just pro- 
duced a crop of nursery stock should not be devoted to 
nursery stock again without a "rest" ; this, too, in spite 
of the fact that instances of success under repeated crop- 
\nng may be cited. Cherries and apples often produce a 
second crop of good trees without a rest between, and 
plums have been known to do well for 5, 10 or even more 
crops when the ground has been well manured. Pears 
rarely do well twice in succession. Nurserymen, there- 
fore, change their land and in many cases rent what they 
need for terms of several years. 

The New York state station, after analyzing large 
numbers of nursery trees, presents the following state- 
ment based upon the table condensed below: 

[From the table] it will be seen that since, upon an 
average, it requires from three to four years to grow a 
crop of nursery stock, cereals make a far greater demand 
upon the soil than does nursery stock, and it is a matter 
of common observation that removal of a tree crop leaves 
the soil in excellent condition for cereals. 



PLANT PROPAGATIOX 



Phosphoric Acid and Potash Removed from Soil by Various Crops 



Nursery Stock, 1 1 tons , 
One ton 

Wheat Grain 

Rye •• 

Barley " 

Oats •' 

Maize " '. . 

Wheat straw 

Rye •• 

Barley " 

Oats " 

Maize " 



368, Effects of nursery crops on soil. — Roberts of Cor- 
nell University has published analyses of nursery stock 
to show what plant food is removed by the four leading- 
kinds of fruit trees. The quantities appear in the follow- 
ins: table : 




Pounds of Fertilizing Compounds Needed by Nursery Stock 



Nitrogen 

Phosphoric Acid 
Potash 



Apples 


Pears 


Peaches 


Plums 


29.07 
lO.U 
19.73 


24.83 

7.83 

13 33 


22.42 

5,42 

11.75 


19.75 

4.42 

11.50 



The significance of these ligures can best be appre- 
ciated by a comparison with those of other crops ; for 
instance, silage corn. This crop grown in drills yields 
12 to 20 tons an acre and will repeat the performance on 
manured land, fully as well, at least once. Yet, to quote 
Roberts's statement, "The amount of green corn necessary 
to remove an equal amount of fertilizing ingredients 
per acre, taking the average of the . . . nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, and potash . . . removed by an 
acre of trees (three years' growth), would be 4,779 
pounds." Nursery trees are, therefore, seen to take only 
small amounts of plant food from the soil. Nursery 
lands, it is reasoned, should supply three to ten times the 
plant food needed by the trees. Experience also supports 



XURSERV MANAGEMENT 2/3 

this deduction from the analyses and shows that good 
crops of potatoes, beans, wheat, etc.. are secured after 
land has been "treed." Why not nursery stock? The 
reason is not a chemical but a physical one. The very 
methods of thorough and deep tillage necessary to pro- 
duce good trees injure the soil texture by '"burning up" 
the vegetable matter, a result most noticeable in heavy 
soils, the very ones which produce best nursery stock. 
As a rule no system of cover cropping and none of ma- 
nuring between the rows is practiced, so there is neither 
protection of the soil during winter nor renewal of vege- 
table matter while the trees are growing — one to three 
or more years. Then, too. when the trees are dug their 
roots go too, and since the work is usually done in the 
fall, frequently when the ground should not be worked 
at all, the soil must pay the penalty ; namely, puddling 
more or less serious the following spring and summer 
and refusal to "work up" again for nursery trees until 
after a rest in grain, hay or pasture. 

369. Cover crops for nursery lands. — Since the 
nursery lands are usually heavy, it would seem that sweet 
clover should have special value in bringing them back 
quickly into good heart, because this plant burrows 
deeply and opens up the soil well besides adding con- 
siderable humus, both by its decaying roots and its tops, 
when these are turned under. Perhaps it would reduce 
the resting period to two or three years, as against three 
to live or even more under common practice. If cover 
crops, such as crimson clover, buckwheat and rve, were 
grown between the rows and plowed or disked under in 
early spring, the evil effects on the land would also be 
lessened. Coarse manure certainly has helped where 
applied between the rows in autumn or spring, but among 
nursery stock it is not always convenient to apply. It 
should, therefore, be liberally added after a nurserv crop 
has been harvested. A second crop could thus be planted 
within two years with good prospects of success. 




274 



.Vi'RSKRV M.\x.\r.ian:xT 275 

Commercial fertilizers ma}' (jfteu be ai)plied to nursery 
stock with profit. Usually nitrogen is needed in liberal 
supply to insure strong- growth. Considerable quantities 
can be secured from legumes, hence the advisability of 
growing a crimson clover cover crop. \\'hen the trees 
are showing yellowish leaves on poor spindling growth, 
a top-dressing of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, 
about 300 pounds an acre, during late spring or early 
summer, will help matters considerably, but the tillage 
should be good so the soil nitrogen may be utilized 
first. Nitrogenous fertilizers must be used with great 
caution, otherwise they may force too succulent a growth. 
This, especially if produced near the close of the season, 
might not ripen. The trees would thus be subject to 
winter injury, they would transplant with greater dififi- 
culty and be unsatisfactory to the planter. 

370. Winter protection of nurseries. — From over 100 
replies to cjueries concerning behavior of nursery stock in 
a very severe winter in the Northwest states and adjacent 
Canada it is deduced that the results of injuries suggest 
(1) the value of snow as a covering for nursery stock, (2) 
the advisability of planting nurseries as far as practicable 
on north slopes, (3) interspersing nursery blocks with 
evergreen windbreaks extending east and west. Next to 
snow as a cover is litter, for which oats, buckwheat, peas, 
vetches, or mammoth clover are advised as catch crops, 
the clover only for wet seasons. 

371. Storing nursery stock in frost-proof winter quar- 
ters is popular with a majority of the large nurseries, 
])ecause it is believed that the stock is in better condition 
to thrive when dug in the fall and stored at an even tem- 
perature approximating the freezing point than when 
allowed to stand in the nursery and ])e subjected to wide 
temperature fluctuations. Besides this is the great ad- 
vantage that packing may be done under favorable con- 
ditions. But whether the trees are actually better when 
they reach the fruit grower is an undecided point. 




276 



ni'Ksi:kn' ^[axack.mknt 277 

Winter sttnagc should be al a uniform temperature of 
28 to 30 degrees. At this temperature little ventilation 
is necessary, loss of vitality from drying is slight, the 
tendency to mold is minimized and packing the roots with 
dam]) material or spraying with water less. 

372. Spraying nursery stock is as necessary as is spray- 
ing of fruit trees. xMost of the fungous troubles and insect 
enemies that attack the same kinds of trees in the orchard 
may be expected, so the same preventives and remedies 
should be employed. Power sprayers are made specially 
for nursery work. (3ne of these is shown in Fig. 209. 

373. Fumigation house. — For nursery use the fumiga- 
tion house should be a permanent structure of wood, con- 
crete or brick, lined with gas-tight material and located 
some distance from dwelling houses and live stock quar- 
ters. It should be used for no other purpose, and its 
gas-holding capacity should be tested at least once every 
six months. Preferably it should have doors on oppo- 
site sides, so wagons may be driven in (Fig. 210), fumi- 
gated without unloading, and hauled out after the opera- 
tion, thus effecting a saving of work and of time. Pref- 
erably one of the doors should face the prevailing wind, 
so the breeze will remove the gas quickly. The doors 
on the lee side should be opened first, to reduce the rush 
of gas that would occur in the reverse case. As a further 
precaution the means of opening should be well to one 
side of the door opening, so men will not have to expose 
themselves to the gas. 

374. Fumigating cions may be the means of preventing 
insect troubles on nursery stock. An air-tight box, 3 feet 
long. 2 wide and 2j/-< high, contains 12j^ cubic feet, for 
which y^ ounce of 98 per cent cyanide of potassium. 3 
ounces sulphuric acid and 8 ounces water will be suffi- 
cient for a single charge. The box should be made of 
heavy and wide matched stufT and be battened at all 
corners. Every crack must be plugged tight with white 
lead. The lid, which should have at least two cleats in- 



2/i> PLANT PROPAGATION 

side, should fit snugly upon strips of live rubber one inch 
wide and one-fourth of an inch thick and provided v^ith a 
hasp for padlocking when closed. 

In one of the front corners a metal tube two to three 
inches in diameter and 18 inches long should be fastened, 
so it cannot shift its position and so its upper end will be. 
say one-quarter or one-half inch below the lid when 
closed. Through this the charge of cyanide is to be 
dropped in the glass or crockery vessel containing the 
acid and water placed just before the box is closed and 
locked. To do this a short glass tube containing the 
charge and closed at one end with paper or muslin tied 
over it is lowered by means of a string through a hole 
in the lid and the metal pipe already mentioned. When 
it reaches the liquid the hole in the cover is plugged tight 
with (preferably) a rubber cork. To prevent loss, this 
plug should be fastened with a string to the lid. 

On both bottom and sides of the box, cleats one-half or 
three-fourths of an inch thick, four to six inches long and, 
say, six inches apart, should be placed "broken jointed," 
with spaces of one to two inches between their ends, so 
the cuttings will be separated a little from the box walls, 
and so the gas will have free circulation around the sides, 
top and bottom. The cions should be laid in loosely — 
never packed snugly. One or two racks made of the 
cleat stufT may be placed between layers of cuttings 
when the box must be filled very full. 

All cions must be dry before being placed in the box. 
otherwise they may be damaged. Forty-five minutes is 
long enough to do the work. Then the lid may be lifted, 
the cions allowed to air for, say, 30 minutes (less if a 
strong breeze is blowing), and finally washed in water. 
Avoid inhaling the gas ; it is deadly. 

375. Greenhouse fumigation experiments have been 
conducted in rose and carnation houses at the New Jersey 
station with 98 per cent potassium cyanide at the rate of 
five-eighths ounce to 1,000 cubic feet. The tempera- 



NL^KSKKV iMA\A(;|':mi:i\t 279 

turcs in the rose luniscs varied from (i'J to DO; in the car- 
nation houses 54 to 60. The length of fumigation was 
16 to 17 minutes. Ciood results in destroying aphis were 
always secured in the rose houses, though sometimes 
the foliage was slightly injured; in the carnation houses, 
many aphis lived through the fumigation. Later experi- 
ments showed that fumigation for green aphis on carna- 
tions is not likely to prove successful at temperatures 
below 60 unless the three-fourths ounce of cyanide is 
used to 1,000 cubic feet and the time of fumigation in- 
creased to 30 minutes ; perhaps not even then. 

376. Nursery tree trimming. — Stockiness is one of the 
main points nurserymen aim to secure in their trees. To 
obtain this they give the trees plenty of space, usually 
not less than nine inches in rows three feet apart for 
small trees, and 12 inches and 3^ to 4 feet for large 
kinds which are to remain in the rows not over two 
years. Greater space is usually needed for longer 
periods. The first year the leaves should not be rubbed 
from the tree stems, or the trees will grow too slender 
and too tall. Should branching start too low, or should 
there be Y-crotches, trimming will be needed. By fall 
of the first year stock budded in the North the previous 
summer and that started from root grafts in the spring, 
should be four or more feet tall. That budded in the 
South in June should be as tall or taller. 

In the spring the height is usually reduced to three or 
four feet to form the head. Some nurserymen head as 
low as 2 feet, or even 18 inches, to meet the increasing 
demand for low-headed trees. Shortly after heading 
back the earth is hoed away from the trunk bases and all 
sprouts from crowns and roots cut off. The leaves that 
appear on trunks and branches should not be removed, 
because they are needed to ripen and develop the ad- 
jacent wood and to help supply the roots with plant food. 
The practice of rubbing them off early in the season can- 
not be too strongly condemned. Trees deprived of these 



280 I'l.AXT I'KOl'ACAIIOX 

leaves are forced io develop other leaves higher up, thus 
tending to make top-heavy, weak, spindling trunks. 

Cutting otT undesirable shoots on the trunk shortly 
after midsummer is a very different thing. By that time 
they will have fulfilled at least a large part of their func- 
tion and can thus be spared with less disadvantage to the 
appearance and the well-being of the trees. Moreover, 
their removal at tliat time will not usually force extra top 
growth, because the trees will be busy ripening up the 
wood they formed quickly in the first half of the season 
when moisture was more abundant in the soil and condi- 
tions better favored quick development of wood. 

If the cuts, in removing the undesirable twigs men- 
tioned, are made with a sharp knife close to the trunk, 
they will heal o\'er by October, ^^'hen the cutting is 
over the fewest number of leaves on trunk and branches 
should be sacrificed. 

377. Cost of nursery stock. — Prices of nursery stock 
vary almost as greatly as do the catalogs. Cultivation, 
fertilization, spraying, trimming, training, root pruning, 
method of digging and packing, age and size of tree, and 
a dozen other factors influence price. The cost of speci- 
mens should always be reckoned on the basis of quality. 
Often a high-priced tree is cheap at its price, and often a 
low-priced tree is expensive even as a gift. The initial 
cost is in most cases a mere trifle when compared to the 
after value of the specimen as a producer of fruit or 
l)eauty. Far better estimate the nurseryman and his 
business methods than compare or contrast his ])rices 
with those of his competitors. Such factors as trueness 
to name, plumpness and quantity of roots, and thorough- 
ness of packing are beyond price. 

378. Buying and handling nursery stocK,* — In ordering 
one should emphasize especially the necessity of trees 
being true to name, thoroughly healthy, properly mature, 
and full of life. By the last is meant they should be dor- 

*Synopsis of article !n Pennsylvania Station Bulletin by J. P. Stewart. 



N UKSKin" M AX ACKMENT 



281 



inant but in strong-, living condition when received by the 
grower, not shriveled or discolored, nor show other evi- 
dence of premature or improper handling. [Straight 
stock is specially desirable.] The union of graft or bud 
should be good, and the roots should be free from all evi- 
dence of woolly aphis [San Jose scale], crown-gall or 
hairy root disease. The particular form of propagation 
— whether whole or piece-root (282) — is immaterial so far 
as orchard growth is concerned, also the region in which 
the tree is produced, so long as the tree is sound and of 
the right variety for the locality involved. 

One-year-old trees of good 
size [4 to 6 feet tall], neither 
stunted nor overgrown, are 
usually best. Never should thev 
be older than two years from 
bud or graft. The advantages 
are that one-year trees usuallv 
cost less to buy, to ship and to 
plant, are more readily shipped 
and transplanted, those fit for 
sale are sure to be strong grow- 
ers, and their heads can be 
formed as desired. If older 
trees are preferred, however, 
their limbs should be properly 
separated, well distributed 
around the trunk and located 
approximately at desired heights. 

It is best to deal direct 
with responsible nurseries and 

to order early, submitting requirements to several firms 
for bids. The trees may bo held at the nursery, subject 
to order at planting time. Where winters are not too se- 
vere, fall planting is advisable, otherwise plant in spring 
as soon as the ground is fit. though it may be done later 
if the trees are kept satisfactorilv dormant. When re- 




FIG. 211— APPLE TREE GRADES 

XXX, at left; XX, middle, X 
at right. The XX grade is prob- 
ably the most popular with com- 
mercial growers. 



282 PLANT PROPAGATION 

ceived the trees should be examined and heeled-in 
at once. Roots should be shortened back to 6 or 8 
inches and those broken or bruised removed with a 
smooth cut above the place of injury. This pruning is 
often done before heeling-in. (Figs. 149, 169.) 

The heeling-in may be done [on a large scale] by plow^- 
ing two or more deep furrows, preferably east and west, 
so the trees can be leaned south or southwest, at an angle 
of 30 to 40 degrees, thus to escape sun scald. They 
should be completely unpacked, all straw and other ma- 
terial likely to attract mice removed, and then be laid 
along the furrow in a single row or layer. The roots and 
a third or more of the tops should be covered immediately 
with earth, which must be packed thoroughly around the 
roots. This covering may be done at least partly with 
the plow. Successive layers may be laid when needed. 
The place should be well drained. Where there is likely 
to be damage from mice, the whole area should be sur- 
rounded with furrows or ridges of earth. 

379. Tree grades. — It is greatly to be regretted that 
the public considers mere straightness, girth and good 
appearance the indices of nursery tree quality, because 
this has largely helped to eliminate many of the best va- 
rieties of fruit from the nurserymen's lists, their places 
being taken by varieties that normally grow straight. Of 
course, the difficulty of cultivating and handling sprawl- 
ing and crooked trees has also helped. No economical 
amount of care will make such varieties as Rhode Island 
Greening and Canada Red apples or Winter Nelis pears 
assume the straight and narrow form that Baldwin, 
Northern Spy and many other varieties assume with min- 
imum attention. 

Again, the demand has been for large trees, because of 
the belief that bearing will come earlier than with small 
ones. Unless trees have been transplanted or ro(^t 
pruned in the nursery, this is usually an error, mainly 
because of unavoidable root losses in digging. It is only 



N uusKKV M A x .\( ;i:m knt 



283 



human nature, then, that the nurserymen grow and sell 
what the public demands — size and looks first rather than 
vigor, health and form characteristic of the variety, as 
well as trueness to name. 

Needless to say, a first-class tree should be true to 
name, well grown, mature, old enough but not too old 
for planting, have a perfectly healed union of stock and 
cion or bud and have smooth, clean, bark free from 
blemishes and disease, have a strong, stout trunk and good 
roots characteristic of the variety and also free from dis- 
ease and insect injury. The leaves should have been 
allowed to fall naturally, not be 
stripped off to ''hasten ripen- 
ing." They are needed to ma- 
ture the wood. The tree will 
drop them at the proper time. 
Mere height is not alone a rec- 
ommendation ; far better a 
rather short stocky tree with nu- 
merous branches well placed low 
down on the trunk. Those not 
needed can be easily cut out, but 
if not present new ones may be 
hard to get where wanted. 
Young, rather than old trees, as 
a rule, will give better results 
in customers' hands and thus 
establish good feeling toward 
the nurserymen. Yery slender 
trees are usually undesirable. 
Nursery trees are universally 
measured by height, and diame- 
ter (caliper'), about two inches foWe%u° ^ ^^^'' ^'^^^' ^' ^ 
above the bud or crown. Roth 
dimensions \ ary with amount and character of trimming. 

380. Standardization of nursery stock grades. — The 
following standard of grades of nursery stock, made of- 







^ 


\ 




















ilL^^^ 




L 




t^ w>^' 



FIG. 212— SOUR CHERRY 
TREES 

Left, XXX, 5 to 7 feet; Middle, 



284 PLANT I'KOrAC.ATION 

ficial by the American Association of Nurserymen, pre- 
supposes that all grades of trees shall be of fair shape, 
branched, and well rooted ; that caliper measurements 
shall be taken two inches above the crown or the bud; 
that some exceptions may be made on such varieties as 
are known to the trade to be light growers (for instance, 
Yellow Transparent and Duchess apples, Seckel pears, 
English Morello cherries, etc.), or due to weather condi- 
tions which may affect tree growth, but that such excep- 
tions shall be noted in the printed price list or the corre- 
spondence of the grower's sales. 

Standardization of Grades 

Kind Inch Feet ("and up") 

Apple 11-16 and up 5 

Apple % to 11-16 4 

Apple Vz to % 31/2 

Apple % to 1/^ % whips included 

Cherry % and up 4% 

Cherry %' to % 4 

Cherry Vz to % 3 

Cherry % to 1/2 2i^ 

Standard pear %. and up 5 

Standard pear %' to % 4 

Standard pear % to % SYz 

Standard pear % to % 3 

Dwarf pear % and up 3 

Dwarf pear %' to % 3 

Dwarf pear ^ to % 21/^ 

Dwarf pear % to */4 2 

Two-year plum % and up 5 

Two-year plum % to % 4 

Two-year plum V2 to % 3% 

Two-year plum % to i,4 3 

One-year peach, plum, apricot 11-16 and up 5 

One-year peach, plum, apricot 9-16 to 11-16 t 

One-year peach, plum, apricot 7-16 to 9-16 3 

One-year peach, plum, apricot 5-16 to 7-16 2 ft. 5 in. 

381. In packing plants for shipment, care must he taken 
to prevent drying out, heating, freezing and breakage 
during transit. For economy's sake, packages should be 
light and strong and the packing material light, cheap and 
respectively retentive of moisture or capable of resisting 
wet for plants Avhich demand one or the other. For mail 
.shipments, the most popular materials include sphagnum 
or chafif. oiled or paraffined paper, express paper, stout 
twine, pot and tree labels, shipping tags, cardboard, cor- 



NURSKUV MANAGEMENT 285 

rugated paper and light wooden boxes. For express and 
freight, all the above list may be included, also burlap, 
baskets, crates, heavy wrapping paper, excelsior, straw, 
cord, rope and packing cases, the largest preferably iron 
bound or battened. 

To save postage, as little moist packing as possible 
must be used. This must not be wet, or the package will 
be refused l)y the post office. Legal weights of mail 
packages must not be exceeded. The roots must be 
washed free of earth, straightened, laid close together, 
tops all pointing one way to form bundles of three or 
four inches in diameter. They must be covered with one- 
half inch of damp moss and wrapped first in oiled or 
parafifined paper, with the tops loose but the roots snugly 
wrapped. By rolling the bundle diagonally and turning 
in the corner of the paper, tying may be avoided. To 
finish, the bundle should be wrapped completely in manila 
l)aper; tied securely around center once or twice and 
across the ends, the address written on the package and 
also on a shipping tag, fastened preferably where the 
strings cross. 

For basket and crate packing in warm weather, the 
plants are left with their tops visible in the bundles made 
as above and stood upright on excelsior, which is also 
packed around the sides. Burlap or cotton cloth is used 
to protect the bundles in baskets ; battens serve the same 
purpose in crates. In cold weather the packing is in- 
creased and the tops covered completely. 

Heavy shipments are packed in large boxes, the larger 
trees in two or three inches of damp cut straw or similar 
material and fastened in place with battens nailed 
through the sides. Small trees, shrubs and berry plants, 
are placed in their order of size till the box is full, packing 
and battens being used as necessary to fill the box solid 
full, so there will be no shifting in transit. After the 
cover is nailed on it should be marked "TOP" in large 
letters and the address painted or inked on with a brush. 



286 PLANT PROPAGATION 

Trees and plants so handled may be shipped thousands of 
miles with confidence that they will arrive in good con- 
dition and give satisfaction to buyers. 



CHAPTER XIX 
LAWS AFFECTING NURSERY STOCK 

382. Enactments, general. — During recent years, laws 
have been passed by various countries and states regu- 
lating- the sale and shipment of nursery stock, which must 
be inspected and certified by a duly authorized officer. 
The United States, the 48 states individually, and Can- 
ada, have such laws ; but, because these differ more or 
less, nurserymen's associations have recently been work- 
ing in conjunction with the American Association of 
Economic Entomologists to secure the passage of a uni- 
form law for the United States and Canada and for the 
various states. At the present writing, though much 
progress has been made, the campaign is only well begun. 
A synopsis of the present operative laws of the United 
States and of Pennsylvania follow : 

383. United States nursery stock law. — Whoever plans 
importing nursery stock from a foreign country should 
first secure a permit from the Federal Horticultural 
Board of the United States Department of Agriculture 
at Washington, D. C. A broker or a commission mer- 
chant may take out a permit in his own name or act as 
agent for the actual purchaser. The importer must see 
that each package on arrival at the port of entry bears 
the proper certificate of foreign inspection and also see 
that each is marked in accordance with the law (Sections 
3 and 4). On arrival of the stock, and before unpacking 
or re-shipping, the Secretary of Agriculture and the 
proper state inspectors must be notified (Section 2, regu- 
lation 8) and given proper data. The Federal board will 
supply pam])hlets covering all cases. 

384. Nursery stock by mail from foreign countries (in- 
cluding florists' stock, cuttings, grafts, cions, buds, bulbs, 

887 



288 



PLANT I'ROPAGATION 




LAWS AFFECTING NURSERY STOCK 289 

roots which may carry plant pests) may be achnitted to 
the mails only when certified by the state or government 
inspector to the effect that the forwarding nursery has 
been inspected within the year and has been found free 
from injurious insects. The only exceptions to this rul- 
ing are shipments to the Office of Seed and Plant Intro- 
duction at Washington. 

384. In Pennsylvania nurseries must be inspected an- 
nually or oftener. No nurseryman, agent, broker or 
dealer may legally sell or ship stock without inspection 
certificate. Fumigation certificates must accompany 
shipments from other states. The word "fumigated" 
stamped or stenciled on a certificate of inspection is not 
enough per sc; it must be part of the certificate granted. 
Nurserymen in other states must file affidavits on blanks, 
supplied by the State Economic Entomologist at Harris- 
burg, that their stock shipped into Pennsylvania will be 
properly fumigated before shipment. Dealers in nursery 
stock will be granted certificates upon filing statements 
that they will buy such stock only from growers and 
nurserymen who hold valid certificates of inspection. 
Transportation companies must reject uncertified stock 
from out-state points. 

386. Uniform nursery inspection legislation. — In sub- 
stance the bill favored by the American Association of 
Nurserymen and the American Association of Economic 
Entomologists provides for a horticultural inspection 
board of three or five members in each state; for the aj)- 
pointment of these members, at least one of whom shall 
be an active grower of nursery stock ; defines the terms 
"nurseryman," "nursery," "nursery stock," "dealer" and 
"agent" ; designates the control of inspection matters, 
treatment of diseases in nurseries or other localities ; 
authors' appointment of deputy inspectors, all working 
under the direction and control of the board, in which the 
nurseryman will have a voice ; provides for a bond to be 
filed by the inspector to cover both acts and omissions of 



290 PLANT PROPAGATION 

inspector and deputy and so conditioned that if the 
nurseryman suffers loss by reason of an unjustifiable act 
of inspector or deputy, and secures a court judgment, he 
may get his money by collecting on the judgment against 
the bond; prescribes the usual duties of inspectors; pro- 
vides for inspection of nurseries and the usual certificates 
and for appeals to the board itself should anyone feel 
aggrieved at the acts of the inspector. 

It has been the idea to incorporate in this law enough 
rules and regulations to bring enforcement as near as 
possible on a uniform basis in the various states, and 
leave no more than necessary to the discretion of the 
local state officials. • 

387. Diseases of nursery stock.— Nursery stock, particularly 
pears, cherries, plums and apples, is especially subject to fungous dis- 
eases producing (1) in the case of seedlings, ripened wood, so buds 
cannot be inserted, or an imperfect union of bud and stock and 
(2) a stunted development due to the annual early loss or drying 
up of the leaves. These diseases can be prevented by fungicides — 
bordeaux especially. It costs about 25 cents a 1,000 for one-year 
and two-year trees, and 35 to 40 cents for three-year trees, or 
85 cents to $1.00 for the three years for 1,000, or one-tenth cent 
each. 

388. Damages from tree sales. — In New York a new 
law details causes for court action to secure damages for 
trees improperly named. Such damages may be re- 
covered in civil action by the ptirchaser of fruit-bearing 
trees at any time prior to the third bearing year, provided 
the purchaser notifies the seller as soon as he has reason 
to believe the trees untruly named. The seller shall 
have the burden of proof in establishing his claim that 
any contract or part thereof exempting him from liability 
or limiting his liability was agreed to by the purchaser. 
In every case of sale of lots of 25 or more trees, the seller 
must at once furnish the purchaser a copy of the contract, 
which shall bear a specially worded statement, embodying 
the above ideas as to action to recover damages. The 
seller must also supply the purchaser with an itemized 
list of the shipment, giving name of county, state where 



LAWS AFFECTING NURSERY STOCK 29I 

the trees listed were grown, age of trees, name and ad- 
dress of person for whom grown, if requested by letter or 
in writing on the contract by the purchaser at time of 
purchase. Within five days after receipt by the pur- 
chaser of the trees and the list thereof the purchaser shall 
compare and notify the seller of any discrepancy between 
the list and the labels on such trees. 



SUGGESTED PRACTICUMS 



General Hints 

Studeni„ should l)e required to keep notes on each exercise, a 
separate sheet being devoted to each practicum. 

Sketches, whenever possible, should be called for and marked ac- 
cording to the story they tell rather than to any art they reveal. 

In many cases several drawings will be needed to show the various 
stages of development. Students should, therefore, leave ample space 
beside the first sketch, so all may be placed together. 

Where time will permit, contests will be found to stimulate interest 
in the work. Such should be easy to arrange in making cuttings of a 
certain kind of plant, in potting, making root grafts, in budding, etc. 
The main points that count in such contests, are accuracy, neatness, 
speed, number of plants growing at a stated time. 

In making notes of work done, tabular forms will be found help- 
ful and concise. For instance, with cuttings the following plan is sug- 
gested by Dr. W. L. Howard of the University of Missouri: 



Record of Cuttings 



Name 




-o 
c 

Za. 






of 

■za 


■a 

(5l 


4, 


Remarks 


Geranium 


















Coleus 









































































Seedage 

1. Sterilising soil. — Secure surface soil from several places where 
weeds have been seeding freely — fence corners, neglected barnyards, etc. 
Add fine sweepings of a barn floor to get more seeds. Also add sour 
and moldy soil, from the greenhouse so as to get damping off fungi, etc. 
Mix thoroughly and sift out debris. Moisten as if for potting and turn 
over once daily for a week or more to give seeds a chance to absorb 
moisture. Divide into two or more lots, one to be steamed, another 
baked, a third treated with formalin, others to be treated in two or more 
of these ways but one left without treatment. Provide each student 
with at least two seed pans, one to contain untreated soil, the others each 
a sample of soil treated in one or more of the ways suggested. Label 
the seed pans, place in a warm greenhouse and note the results at stated 
intervals for say a month. The notes taken may be marked as in an 
examination. 

2. Botanical classification. — Examine a considerable number of 
species of seeds to determine which belong to monocots, dicots and poly- 

292 



SUGGKSTED PRACTICUMS 293 

cots. Among the best are: Alfalfa, asparagus, barley, beans, beets, 
broom corn, l)uckwhcat, cabbage, canna, castor bean, clover, corn, cow- 
pea, cncunibi-r, eggplant, endive, fennel, leek, lettuce, millet, morning 
glory, mustard, nasturtium, oat, okra, onion, parsnip, pea, peanut, pepper, 
peppergrass, pine, pumpkin, radish, rhubarb, rye, sage, salsify, spinach, 
spruce, sunflower, tobacco, tomato, turnip, wheat. Weed seeds may 
well be included also. 

Most of these will have to be soaked or even germinated before 
they can be handled satisfactorily. The idea should be so to familiarize 
the student with the truly named seeds that he can identify the various 
kinds in mixtures of say 50 species — this as an examination. 

3. Germination test. — Select 50 or preferably 100 seeds from any 
convenient number of species of seed ; place in a seed tester or in 
soil for sprouting; note the rate, date, number and strength of those 
that sprout in given times and estimate the \alue of the seed upon the 
basis of price and percentages of strong and weak seeds. (The same 
seeds used in this practicum may be also made to serve in other prac- 
ticums if desired.) 

4. Germination studies. — Note, 1, the length of time required by 
seeds of various kinds to sprout in a seed tester or preferably in 
baked or steamed soil. 2, Note the appearance of the seedling, vrhat 
it does with its seed coats, its cotyledons, whether the cotyledons func- 
tion as true leaves or only as storage organs, length of time before 
true leaves are developed. As an examination, seedlings of any con- 
venient number of species may be placed before each student for iden- 
tification. No "catches" should be included. For instance, should a 
student identify "collard" or "cauliflower" as "cabbage," he should be 
marked perfect, because both seeds and young seedlings of such are so 
closely alike that no one can distinguish one from the other. 

5. Accelerating germination. — Divide a definite number of seeds into 
two equal lots and plant one treated (as below), the other untreated, 
side by side for comparison of rates of germination. A. Soak in water 
— bean, pea, corn, radish, cabbage, beet, cucumber, pumpkin, wheat, oat, 
parsnip, carrot, spinach, tomato, sunflower. B. Immerse in five or six 
times their volume of strong sulphuric acid in a test tube or wide- 
mouthed bottle and stir or shake till all the seeds are wet. Let 
stand 5 to 20 minutes, then wash in preferably running water for fully 
five minutes. Plant at once. Kentucky coffee tree, cotton, honey lo- 
cust, locust, Abyssinian banana, canna. C. Pour enough boiling water 
to cover, say, a pint of seeds and allow the whole to cool in a closed ves- 
sel. Select samples for the class to compare in germination with dry 
seeds of the same kinds. D. File or cut notches in canna, moon 
flower, Abyssinian banana, wild cucumber, morning glory and lotus. 
Plant these side by side with untreated seeds. E. Soak peach, plum, 
cherry, walnut, butternut, hickory and similar two-valved, hard-shelled 
seeds a few days : freeze and thaw part of them several times and 
plant some of each lot in comparison with dry ones. 

6. Rc-genuination of seeds. — Select 100 or 200 seeds of, say, 10 
kinds of seeds — wheat, oats, peas, beans, corn, radish, dandelion, melon, 
onion, pepper, spinach, tomato, buckwheat, clover — and germinate them. 
When the sprouts are one-half to three-fourths inch long, dry them 
in an airy drawer for, say. a week. Rub off the brittle sprouts and re- 
germinate. Note how rapidly or slowly this occurs, also how many 
times it may be done with the various species. 

7. Large vs. small seeds. — Count 100 large and lOO small seeds 
from an unwinnowcd sample of, say, radish, turnip or mustard — the 



204 PLANT PROPAGATION 

first preferred — and sow them thinly in rows side by side in a green- 
liouse bed or out of doors. Make careful notes to determine whether 
or not there are individual differences in favor of one or the other, 
also whether one set of differences might outweigh the other set in 
value to a business grower. 

3. Pricking out. — With small wooden dibble, cut at the end to form 
a V about one-eighth inch across and one-fourth inch deep, lift seed- 
linffs of begonia, mignonette, pansy, etc., from the seed pans and space 
them about an inch apart each way in flats filled with loose, fairly rich 
soil ; water, place on greenhouse bench and shade with newspaper a 
few days. 

9. Fill flats with soil. Use a spotting board and a dibble to mark 
holes one to two inches apart ; lift cabbage, tomato, pepper, eggplant 
or similar sturdy growers from their seed pans or flats and prick them 
in with the dibber, first making a hole deep enough to hold the roots, 
second placing the plant in the hole, third, pressing the soil against the 
roots from bottom to top. When flats are full, place on greenhouse 
bench, water and shade. 

Layerage 

10. General note. — Outdoor subjects can be treated only during the 
growing season ; many indoor ones may be used to demonstrate the 
principles. 

11. Simple layers. — Compare rates of rooting of subjects whose 
stems are twisted, notched or cut at the nodes with those not so treated. 
Which makes best plants in least time with various subjects — currant, 
gooseberry, golden bell, mock orange, deutzia, etc. ? 

12. Tip layers. — Bury and anchor black raspberry tips and dew- 
berry canes at various stages of development and note what stage is 
necessary for securing new plants. Also bury some stems, as in simple 
layering, to see if they will take root. How many plants can be se- 
cured from one cane, and in what ways? 

13. Compound or serpentine layers.— Bend last year's canes of a 
vine so alternate parts each containing a node shall be buried or in the 
air. Wound the under sides of the buried nodes on some canes, but leave 
those on others unhurt. Note the time required to secure rooted 
plants by both methods. Vines to use : Grape, trumpet and Virginia 
creepers, Dutchman's pipe, Boston and English ivy, etc. 

14. Continuous layers. — In shallow trenches cover shrub 
branches or vine canes completely except a few joints at the tips. 
Some may be wounded, as above (11), others not. Use very light soil, 
or a mixture of moss or muck and soil in some cases, to cover the 
canes and compare with the ordinary soil of the trench. Snowball, high 
bush cranberry, low-growing willows, red osier (Cornus stoionifera) 

15. Mound layers. — Have each class, 1, cut back bushes to 
develop numerous shoots for mound layering the following year; 2, 
make mound layers of the shrubs cut back the previous year; and, 3, 
dig and cut apart the rooted layers the next spring. Thus, if the 
plants are in three adjacent rows, each class will need only one prac- 
ticum period of two hours to cover the whole method, part of the 
time to prepare or cut back the subjects in one row, part to bury the 
stems similarly produced in the next, and part to finish the work. 
Gooseberry, Paradise apple, quince and shrubs as above (14). 

16. Chinese, air or pot layers. — Notch, girdle or ring stems of 
leggy or branchy plants in humid greenhouse, bandage with a bunch of 
wet sphagnum in cotton cloth and keep moist till roots have formed. 



SUGGESTED PRACTICUMS 295 

I'hen discard bandage, cut stem close to wound, remove some leaves, 
and plant in flower pot. Sviitable subjects: Dracrena, pandanus, rub- 
l)er plant, croton. 

17. Runucrs. stolons and off-sets. — Anchor rosettes of leaves 
produced by strawl)erry, buck1)ush, houseleek, etc., in soil outdoors or 
in xrecnhousi- and sever from parent plant when rooted. Compare 
plants grown thus in pots with those grown near-by in the open 
ground or on greenhouse bench. 

Separation 

18. Cut a bulb of each class in half from top to bottom and 
another from side to side, each through the center. Make drawings to 
show formation of various parts. (Easy and cheap bulbs: 1, tulip or 
hyacinth, 2, tiger or Easter lily, .3, crocus or gladiolus.) 

19. After tops have died down in spring and any time until 
midautumn, dig up bulbs of any spring blooming bulb. Note and make 
drawings of the way bulblets are produced. 

20. Do same with various lily species. 

21. In fall, when tops of gladiolus, montbretia, tigridia, and 
other summer blooming bulbs have turned yellow, do same thing. 

22. In midsummer collect bulblets in leaf axils of tiger lily, 
make cross and vertical sectional drawings of some and plant others 
in moist soil at various depths from surface to three or four inches 
deep. Note results. 

23. Wound and handle bulbs as described (115) and note results. 
(Classes in consecutive years may do various stages of work as sug- 
gested under exercise in mound layering.) 

Division 

24. In spring, dig up and cut in pieces with spade large clumps 
of rhubarb, phlox, iris, etc. ; plant the cut parts and note results. 

25. In fall dig up clumps of canna or dahlia, store in dry warm 
quarters till late winter, then cut apart so each piece will have at least 
one "eye" or bud, and plant in pots in warm greenhouse. 

26. From late August to early October dig up, divide and plant 
peony clumps. 

27. In spring cut up clumps of plants mentioned in 24, but by 
method given in 25. 

Cuttings 

28. In autumn, after the leaves fall, make cuttings of mature wood, 
bury some tops up, others tops down out of doors and side by side : 
store some in various media (sand, dust, moss, powdered charcoal) and 
some imcovered in a humid, cold but frost-proof cellar: make other 
cuttings in spring, bury some butts up, other butts down for two or 
three weeks : plant all lots side by side, previously having made notes 
of their condition. Show in tabular form the results secured after six 
weeks or two months' growth outdoors. Choose both easy and difficult 
subjects : willow, alder, maple, elder, currant, hickory, apple, pear, 
qiu'nce, Japanese phmi, American plums of several species, European 
I)lum. peach, poplar, elm, catalpa, gooseberry, lilac, grape, etc. 

29. Root cuttings. — In fall dig well-established blackberry or 
red raspberry, "stool" at least a foot from the outside all around ; 
shake out earth ; cut roots of one-eighth to one-half inch in diameter 



296 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



into two-inch lengths ; store in green sawdust in cold, humid cellar till 
spring ; then plant horizontally an inch deep in sand. 

30. Fill up hole left in 29 ; thrust spade full depth of blade ver- 
tically in soil at intervals of six inches from hole so as to form circles 
around the hole and thus cut the roots that remain ; compare plants so 
produced with those made as in 29. 

31. Secure cuttings as in 30, but after a month's callusing grow 
in greenhouse. Compare with plants of 29 and 30. 

32. In spring root prune, but do not remove "stool," by making 
three or four circles with the spade around the stool as in 30. Note 
results. 

33. Tuber cuttings. — Cut an Irish potato into pieces so each 
piece will have at least one "eye," another a good deal of flesh, a third 
very little flesh, a fourth cut through the middle of a good bud. Note 
differences in plants produced, and if desired, in resulting crop. 

34. Cut a tuber from end to end and from side to side, plant 
the pieces shallow in sand near together and note any diflferences. 

35. Plant one sweet potato whole, another cut in half length- 
wise and a third crosswise in warm greenhouse or hotbed, the cut 
pieces cut side up and down respectively. Cover with half inch of 
sand. Note results and any differences. 

36. Grcenzvood cuttings.— Make "soft wood" cuttings of any green- 
house plants available, part cut at, part just above, and part just below 
nodes ; leave all leaves but the bottom ones on some ; remove all but the 
top two or three on others ; on still others, remove bottom ones and cut 
back the others fully two-thirds, leaving the growing tip bud in each 
case. Shade some with paper, leave some unshaded. Vary the ex- 
periments otherwise as desired and note results. 

37. Evergreen cuttings. — In October make cuttings of arbor 
vitse or spruce four or five inches long. Cut (don't pull) off foliage 
from three-fourths of the base, plant in flats of sand immediately and 
set away in cool place. Keep shaded, moist, not wet. If out of doors, 
examine to see if rooted six to twelve months from planting. If in- 
doors with bottom heat they may root in less than two months. Try 
both plans and decide which is the better and why. 

38. Mature wood cuttings.— In fall make two and three bud 
cuttings of grape from last season's growth. Bundle up, label and 
bury, or store in damp moss, etc., to callus. In spring plant some 
ol)liquel3', some vertically, some with two buds and some with only one 
bud showing, in a frame out of doors or in the open field. Note dif- 
ferences. 

39. Cut similar canes (38) an inch or so on each side of a bud to 
make single-eye cuttings less than three inches long. Bury and handle 
as above, except that in planting place some cuttings with the eye in 
various positions from horizontal to vertical and at varying depths in 
Ihe sand down to, say, three inches. Note differences. 

40. Make heel and mallet cuttings and handle as in 38. 

41. Compare mature wood cuttings of Americana, domestica, Mariana, 
triflora and other species of plums. Which strike root most easily? 

42. After making cuttings as in 38, store some under varying con- 
ditions of moisture and temperature. Which conditions produce best 
results? 

43. Plant some cuttings made as in 38 in fall where they are to 
remain. Mulch some, but leave others bare. Compare each lot with 
the other, and at close of growing season with plants produced by the 
38 method. 



SUGGESTED I'KACTICUMS 2»^7 

•44. Leaf cuttinys. — Make leaf cuttings of rex begonia by both 
irethods described (191). 

■45. Lay bryophyllum leaves flat on sand in propagating ijcncli. 
I Mace a tittle sand on each to hold in i)lacc. Note differences between 
wounded and unhurt leaves. 

46. Bury stems and one-third of gloxinia leaves in propagating 
sand. Take up and examine various si)ecimens at intervals of a week 
or two luitil little bulbs are formed. 

47. Try the same experiment, but with the upper halves of leaves. 

48. Try similar experiments to those of 44 with cabbage and lemon 
leaves. 

49. Plants produced by leai'cs. — Fasten a mature leaf of bryophyllum 
on the wall or a post in a humid greenhouse and leave undisturbed a 
month or six weeks. Make notes of what happens. Try other leaves 
at the same time in a dry room and make comparative notes. 

Potting 

50. Try planting in wet pots ; dirty pots ; new, dry pots ; new 
l)ots soaked overnight but dried so no water is visible on them. Also 
with soil so dry it will pour; soil so wet it will form a clod in the 
hand, and soil "just right." 

51. B. Lift seedlings with as many roots as possible from pre- 
viously watered flats and plant in two-inch pots. Place on one-half 
inch of sand in greenhouse bench, water and shade. 

52. Lift cuttings from propagating bench when they have roots, 
preferably about one-half inch long, plant as in 51. 

53. Water a lot of plants sadly in need of shifting from two- 
inch pots to a larger size several hours before, others immediately be- 
fore, and others not until after shifting to three-inch pots. Note dif- 
ferences in ease of handling and results in plant growth. After two to 
four weeks make critical examination of roots and soil in pots treated 
each way. Describe findings and draw conclusions. 

54. Re-plant some plants purposely allowed to become pot- 
bound ; 1, by gently or forcibly breaking the soil and re-potting ; and 2, 
by washing out the soil before doing so. Compare the methods. 

Grafting 

55. In November or December from correctly named bearing 
trees select cions six to nine inches long, some among the bearing parts, 
others from water sprouts (not the suckers). Store until ready for 
grafting. 

56. Make enough grafting wax to supply needs of class for all 
kinds of work during college or school year. 

57. In midwinter make some whole-root, some piece-root grafts, 
vising some of each class of cion wood in 55. Store finished grafts till 
spring. Note differences between the two classes of wood, both in 
grafting and in later results. 

58. In spring plant root grafts made in 56. 

59. In spring when the buds begin to swell make cleft grafts 
using some of each class of wood secured in 55. Make examinations of 
work each week for at least a month. Some of these grafts may be 
made at the crowns of trees that failed to take buds the previous year, 
others among the tops of trees in bearing. 

60. Similarly practice bark grafting. 



298 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



61. Similarly practice the notch method. 

62. Toward spring confine some rabbits or mice aroimd the trunks of 
seedling or worthless apple trees 3 to 10 years old, and if necessary by 
withholding food force them to girdle the trees. When the wounds arc 
large enough remove the rabbits and protect the wounds from drying 
out till the buds of peach and other trees earlier than apple begin to 
open, then bridge graft. 

63. In the greenhouse or out of doors, practice inarching on any 
convenient plants. 

64. Herbaceous grafting. — Select vigorous, potato and tomato plants 
of early varieties about nine inches high. Cut the former stems square 
across about four inches above ground and split them about 1J4 inches 
downward. With a sharp knife cut a four-inch tomato cion from the 
growing tip and make its lower end wedge-shape, to fit the cleft in the 
potato stem. Tie snugly with raffia and wrap with damp sphagnum. 
Shade a few days. Note results weekly till the plant matures or dies. 
Perform a similar operation with tomato as stock and potato as cion. 
Make critical notes. 

65. Callitsing of grafts. — Make grafts of various kinds — splice and 
cleft at the collar, whip on root, side on root — and after wrapping or 
waxing according to the method employed, cover with two or three 
inches of moist sand on the greenhouse bench. In a week or ten days 
note what has happened and make comparisons. If thought desirable, 
plant in five-inch pots a week or two later and note results still later. 

66. Making and storing root grafts. — In autumn or early winter, 
make any convenient number of whole-root and piece-root grafts; tie 
in bundles of one kind each ; label with variety name, date and stu- 
dent's name, pack in moist sand and store in a cellar till spring. Make 
notes ; plant and continue note taking as to development and compar- 
ison as to growth. 

Budding 

67. Practice dormant budding in spring on seedling stocks grow- 
ing in nursery rows one or two years. 

68. In midsummer, or somewhat later, select bud sticks from truly 
named peach trees and shield bud in seedling stocks grown during the 
same season. 

69. In June or early July practice the same method on apple or 
cherry stocks. 

70. Within two weeks cut the raffia around all but one or two 
of the best-looking buds. Make examination of each at intervals of a 
week and note results. 

Packing Plants for Shipment 

71. Mai! shipment of plants. — Place the washed plants with their 
roots parallel and together in a close pile. Cover all around with, say, 
one-half inch of sphagnum. Wrap with oiled paper and tie with string 
at each end. Cover with manila paper, tie with stout cord. Write ad- 
dress on package and also on a shipping tag to be fastened to the pack- 
age. A test of good packing is to have the plants in good condition a 
week or ten days later when unpacked. 

72. Packing express shipment. — Tie loose plants (e. g., cabbage, to- 
mato) in bundles of 10, 25, 50 or 100, so as to be easily counted and 
not to be too bulky — say four or five inches in diameter. Have a little 
\vet moss in the center of each bundle. If plants are in pots, water 



SUGGESTi:i) PKACTICUMS 299 

freely an hour or two before lifting. Roll each bundle separately in 
paper in such a way as to need no tying. Place one-inch layer of 
damp, not wet, moss on bottom of proper-sized baski't. Stand bundles 
upright and close together on moss. Pack moss between bundle and 
sides of basket. If plants are short, cover with burlap sewed or tied 
on ; if tall, draw tops together, cover around sides, leave open at top 
in warm weather, but in cold cover all. In cold weather a closed box 
is a better package. 

73. Pocking plants for mail delivery. — Pack several kinds of plants 
from three to four-inch pots to go by mail (see Exercise 71). Place a 
package in each of. say, three or four sets of adverse conditions likely 
to be encountered in an actual shipment — a hot, a cold, a dry, a moist 
room — during a week. Then unpack, note results and see how many 
plants will grow when planted under favorable conditions. 

74. Pack bale of trees or shrubs for freight or express. — Select dor- 
mant trees or shrubs of various sizes. Tie and label each variety sep- 
arately. Dip roots of each bundle in thin mud. Lay large trees on 
floor or ground first ; fit smaller ones in ; tie with binding twine ; on 
floor spread burlap big enough to cover whole bundle ; put wet chaff, 
sphagnum or sawdust three inches deep where roots are to be ; place 
roots on this, draw up sides of burlap and fill in more packing where 
needed to make three-inch packing all around roots : sew together or use 
three-inch nails as pins ; tie with rope or stout binder cord ; fasten on 
two addressed tags in different parts of the bundle. 

75. Box packing for cold zvcathcr. — Tie dormant trees as in bale 
packing. Treat active plants as in basket packing. Line a box with 
two or three thicknesses of paper. Cover bottom with three inches of 
moist chaff or sphagnum. Place large tree bundles on bottom, nail one- 
inch boards through box sides to hold trees from shifting. Place 
shrubs and fasten similarly. Cover with two or three inches of damp, 
cut straw. Lay in the active plants previously wrapped and fasten so 
they won't shift during shipment. Fill two inches of the top with 
packing. Be sure to make box contents feel solid with packing before 
nailing on cover. If packing is too wet, there is danger of heating. 
It should be merely moist. 

76. Heeliiig-in. — In a trench one foot deep and wide and any de- 
sired length, place fruit tree roots, tops pointing obliquely to south side. 
Cover with earth from the other side of the trench and pack firmly. 
Place other rows of trees, then shrubs and lastly berry plants — even 
strawberries. Cover tops of trees and shrubs wholly with soil. Stake 
position of rows. Leave no material that will serve for mouse nests. 
In spring note results. 



TABLE 1 

ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS 
GROWN FROM SEED 

CONDENSED CULTURAL INSTRUCTIONS 
For Flower Seeixs* 



The letter opposite the plant name refers to the iirojjer paragrajih in the list which 
follows. 



Abrnnia A 

Abiitiloii N 

Acacia S 

Acliillea V 

Acroclinium M 

Adlumla G 

Adonis F 

Ageratum F 

Agrostemma A 

Alyssum F 

" perennial. .V 

Amaranthus A 

Ampelopsis V 

Anchiisa V 

Anemone V 

Angelonia N 

Antirrhinum A 

AcLuilegia V 

Aralia N 

Arctotis A 

Aristolochia V 

Arnebia A 

Asparagus 

A<TticilIatus V 
" plumosa ....S 
" Sprengeri . . . S 

Asters A 

Auricula C 

Balloon Vine F 

Balsam A 

Bartonla U 

Begonia S 

Bellis C 

Bigiionia V 

Brachyoome F 

Pr"'-;illi:i A 

Bryonopsis F 

Cacalia U 

Calampelis A 

Calandrinia P 

Calceolaria B 

Calendula F 

I'alliopsis. annual. . F 

Caniiianula V 

Canary A'ine F 

Candytuft U 

■' hardy ...V 

Canna 

Canterbury Bell . . V 

Carnation T 

Celastrus V 

Celosia A 

Oentaurea U 

" white-leaved . Q 

Centrosema V 

Chrysanthemum. 

annual . . U 

" perennial T 

Cineraria B 

white-leaved. Q 



Clarkia U 

Clematis ,V 

Cleome F 

Clianthus D 

Cobaea D 

Coccinea F 

Cockscomb A 

Coleus D 

Collinsia U 

Convolvulus F 

Coreopsis, hardy... V 

Cosmos A 

Cowslip C 

Crepis U 

Cucumis F 

Cuphea A 

Cyclamen B 

C.\T)ress Vine F 

Dahlia 

Datura F 

Delphinium V 

Dianthus, annual . . U 
hardy ..V 

Digitalis V 

Dimorphotheca .... A 

Dolichos F 

Dracaena N 

Echinocystis F 

Edelweiss V 

Eschscholtzia U 

Euphorbia F 

Ferns S 

Fuchsia N 

Gaillardia F 

" perennial. V 

Geranium N 

Geum V 

Gilia U 

Gladiolus Seed ...0 
Globe Amaranth.. M 

Gloxinia S 

Godetia U 

Goldenrod V 

Gourds F 

Grevillea N 

Gypsophila F 

hardy... V 

Helichrysum M 

Heliotrope N 

Helenium V 

Heuchera F 

Hibiscus, annual . . F 

" hardy ...V 

Hollyhock, hardy.. V 

" annual. A 

Honeysuckle V 

Humea Q 

Humulus F 

Hyaointhus 



Ice Plant A 

Impatiens N 

Incarvillea U 

Inula V 

Ilicinuea F 

Ivy, English V 

Kaulfussia U 

Kenilworth Ivy ...V 

Kochia A 

Kudzu Vine V 

Lantana N 

Larkspur, annual . . U 
Lathyrus latifolius.V 

Lavatera F 

Lavender V 

Layia U 

Lemon Verbena . . N 

Leptosiphon U 

Liniim U 

Lobelia, annual . . .Q 

hardy V 

Luiiinus U 

Lychnis V 



Malope F 

Mallow F 

Marigold F 

Marvel of Peru . . F 

Mathiola F 

Matricaria D 

Maurandia D 

Mesenibryan- 

themum . . F 

Mignonette U 

Mimosa D 

Mimulus D 

Mina J 

Momordica F 

Moon Flower F 

Morning Glory . . . F 

Musa K 

Myosotis C 

Nasturtium F 

Nemesia. N 

Nemophia U 

Nieotiana D 

Nigella U 

Nolana U 



Oenothera 
O.xalis . . . 



Pa^onia V 

Palava U 

Pansy C 

Passion Flower . . . N 

Pelargonium N 

Pennisetum F 

Pentstcmon V 



Perilla D 

Petunia D 

Phlo.x, ainniat . . . . F 

hardy V 

Physalis A 

Pinks, annual U 

•■ hardy V 

Platycodon V 

Polyanthus C 

Poppy, annual P 

hardy V 

Pnrtulaca F 

Primula, tender . . B 

" hardy ...C 

Pyrethrum, hardy. V 

" golden -leaved. Q 

Rehmannia N 

Rhodantha M 

Rhodochiton N 

Ricinus F 

Rocket V 

Rose, monthly I 

hardy V 

Rudbeckia, annual U 

Salpiglossis A 

Salvia A 

Seabiosa F 

perennial. V 

Schizanthus F 

Silene F 

Smilax N 

Stevia A 

Stocks, annual ...A 
" biennial ...I 

Stokesia V 

Sunflower F 

Swainsonia S 

Sweet Pea E 

Sweet Sultan F 

Sweet William V 

Tagetes F 

Tliunbergia F 

Torenla D 

Tritoma 

Tropa>olum F 

Valerian V 

Verbena A 

Vinea N 

A'iolet C 

A'irginian Sto<^k ..U 
Viscaria U 

Wallflower V 

Wistaria V 



Kinnia 



....F 



* Used by permission of Peter Henderson of New York. 



GENERAL RULES 

..av7b..^:'^;ltri:;'ii;^ i5;.Xs!;;l'^^i,[^^^i^^s!'' rollowingge„er.l rmc^ and notes 
deep.^^'"''*^ mentioned as necessary to grow seedlings, flats should not be over 2% inches 

Seeds should be covered not more than four times their diameters. 

Unless otherwise stated, seeds should be firmed in the soil, as shown in Fig. 7. 

Never let seedlings become dry. 

Transplanting of seedlings is done when two or three true leaves have formed. 

A fn.'"- n"^'^ '" 8''«'fn''""se. hotbed, or light window of dwelling in temperature of 
*^ 60 to ,0 degrees. Cover and firm the seeds. Water with fine spray. Transplant 1 

<lZn ?^1" 'i" 'r"" "^'' "' --'""'^ P°'^- ^'">"' ""t in garden after danger from frost 
Seed may also be sown in open ground after danger from frost is over. 

B ?n",,,'"fin'''l<" "^ ''^H' ^''" .'■" ef<^e"l":use. hotbed, or light window, in temperature of 
" 50 to 60 degrees, at any time except during hot weather (spring nionths preferred) 
Merely press the seed into the soil with firming board; rub a lit le liX soiT hro"'^h 
a fine sieve over them until covered not deeper than 1-16 of an ich VVatIr with fliio 
«'n''^--.J"".''''''"'-,l '"'''' ">""' '" fl^'s. Pot off as soon as large enough Shifr as nnu 
nil with roots until the sizes of the pots are 6 or 7 inches. enougn. snirt as pots 

/^ For early flowering, sow in fall in bed of fine, well-nulverizert <!nil Pnc<.» .„,i fl— 
D ?,?Z Z n?''5 ^° n 'h "'"^- P'?"'' '" •'"tf'ed. greenhouse, or window in a temnera- 

E l^p^pZ crVrn-e^h^rtteV.^-^hi^n-sel-dli^rto^-e S^s ^^'%^ 

r;irt l-o^r ^f L^iifs'leep^-alfdlr -ti^^ l^n^'l^^'lB/BS^V^ 
allowed to go to seed they will fiower much longer nrmea upon them. If not 

P* Sow out of doors in well-pulverized soil when danger from frost is over rr^'^^r an^ 

^.. r/rbi's:,„^^t%rJ^!:i;^n^- .-t,^:^: ^i!^^'^.^'^^^£^ IBaSrf 

and plant in open ground after danger from frost is over '^'"^"'"B- Transplant to flats 

i°.»f,r,Vrrt";."'„.vr"' •"" ""~ "• """ '"'• "»"™"5.St'*aT,%a„'",°,s 

temperature of not less than 70 degrees either in ereenho..^ i.n?Li "^^^ situation at 
^^^'^ '"- -»-«''. pot off«si^|■■y^'[n^^J s"ma1[^rs°,";^nd'^"sl.1??i„ToZr-on:?i^ 

M stedlirs to P?e^'nt"'c^r^w&'l?^'ered"ea7f;- so^w^^f;;- fl^ " "™'^- .-^ 'hin out 
or light window, in temperature averaging 70 degrees' Ind t^ansnLn? t^nT™?."''fl ".'"*"■?; 
desired to keep flowers as everlastings cut when hnH»»r„<.rf.i' '° sitnilar flats. If 
and suspend in a dark, dry place wit'h' heads So^^u'^unUl'f'Sllv dry!* ""'^ """° '^"'^ °P<=° 

NSow in flats of light soil in greenhouse, hotbed, or light window of rtweiiim, hm.co 
in temperature averag ng 65 degrees Tover nroc= flr.ili„ „„.? . awelling house. 
1 inch apart into similar flats Watef with fine spravPnt iff fl"l."'^""''f"' seedlings 
and repot, as they grow, into larger poTs; or thev may be nLted n,?t ?n '"^* *"°"^''.i 
for the summer, after danger of frost is over. Planted out in open ground 

Q Sow in flats of light soil in greenhouse, hotbed, or light window of dwelling w.th 
)ra piTnt^^T.;^?^ Sr.Te. ''LZr'irTrls. Ts^^\^r'^"'In^ilT^a^*lYofS f 
In i;;;'i^g,'"af^eT'dafig^r'^ir?rosn o^er?^""' ^owingrm/y" /fs'o''bl^''tSaSe^ roVn"Un| 

301 



302 



PLANT TKUPAGATION 



PSow in open ground after danger from frost is over, in bedi of well-pulveri/.ed soil. 
Plants should remain where sown, as they will not stand transplanting unles.s done 
with extraordinary care. Thin out carefully, so as not to disturb the remaining iilants 
more than necessary. For succession of blooms, two or three sowings may be made at 
intervals during summer. 

QTo get good sized plants for planting out in the spring, sow seed in fiats in green- 
house, hotbed, or light window of dwelling as soon after .Tanuary first as possible, 
in light soil, in temperature averaging (iO degrees. Cover, firm. Transplant to similar 
flats 1 inch apart. When large enough, rot in 2% -inch pots, riant in open ground after 
danger from frost is over. 

SSow in flats of light soil, in temi)erature of 70 degrees, in greenhouse, or light window 
of dwelling. Merely press seed into soil. Always water with fine spray, so as not to 
disturb the surface. Place pane of glass over to|). but allow a little siiace for ventilation. 
I'ul flats in shaded iilace. Transplant to similar flats and pot otf when large enough. 

TSow in spring in greenhouse, hotbed, or light window of dwelling, where temperature 
will average CO degrees. Use flats of light soil. Cover. Transplant seedlings 1 inch 
ajiart in flats. When 1 or 2 inches, iiot in 2%-inch flats, and shift to larger ones as 
needed, or plant in open ground, where plants will form flowering clumps for fall and 
winter. 

¥ J Sow out of doors after danger from frost, and, for succession, at intervals during 
^^ summer. For early ilowerins. sow in greenhouse, hotbed, or south or southeast 
window of dwelling, in flats, with average temperature of 60 degrees. Transplant to 
similar flats and jilant seedlings in opeii after danger from frost is past. Also sow in 
garden in May in light soil; cover, firm, and water with tine spray. 

VSow out of doorsf after danger from frost 's over, in beds of finely pulverized soil. 
Cover with light soil and firm. Thin out when necessary. Plant in permanenf 
position as soon as seeds are large enough, so they may beccmie firmly rooted or established 
before cold weather; or sow in early fall, carry plants over in cold frame, and transplant 
to permanent position in spring. 

Table 2— WOODY PLANTS 



Acer A. B. ! 


Cornu.s 


...G. 1 


Kerria 


..E, G 


Quercus 


....A. 1 


Acscuhis B, 1 


•Crataegus , 


...B, 1 


Ku'lieuteria 


C 






Ailanthus B 


Cyti.sus .... 


...F, 1 






Rhamnus .. 


C 


Akebia C 










Robinia .... 


...B, H 


Almond (dbl. fl.)..l 


Deutzia 


E 


Lahurnmn .. 


...C, 1 


Rose 


.A, F, 1 


Alnus C 


Diei villa ... 


...E, G 


l.arix 


1 








Euonynius . . 
Ela agnus . . . 


...G. 1 


MRUstrum .. 
I,i(iuidambar 
l.iriodendron 


..B, F 
..A. B 
...B, 1 


Salix 


G, 1 




Sambucus . 
Sassafras . . 


C, D, G 


Ampelopsis F 


...C, H 




Kxoohorda . . 


...C. D 


l.onicera ... 


..A, B 


Sophora . . . 


.C, F. 1 


Barberry B 










Spin-ea 


...A, F 


Betula A. B, 1 


Fagus 


...B, 1 




A, F, 1 


Stuartia . . . 


C, D, F 


Bignonia F 


For.wthia ... 


...E. G 




... F 


'Styrax . . . 


A, B. E 




*Fraxinus .. 


...B. 1 


Mviica 


A 


Symphoricarpus B, E 


Cal.vcanthus B, C 

Caragana . . D. H, 1 




...B, 1 


Mulberry . . . 


...G, 1 


Symplocus . 
Syringa . . 


...C. F 
E. G. 1 


Gleditschia . 
Halesia 


...B, 1 
B 


Nemojiantlies 
*Nvssa 


A 

B 


Tamarix ... 
Taxodium . . 
Tilia 




Catalpa B, E. 1 




Ceanothus B. D 






Celtis A, 6 


Hamamelis . 


C 


Ostrya 

Oxydendrum 




Cephalanthus G 

(ercediphyllum ...E 


Hickory .... 
Hydrangea . . 


...B, 1 
...E, F 


.. .C, 1 
C 


Ulmus 


....A, I 


Chestnut B. 1 


Hvjiericum .. 


..G. H 






Vaccinium 


C 


Cliinnuapin 1 






Paulownia . . 


..C. G 


•Viburnum 


...B, E 


Chionanthus C. 1 


Itea 


C 


Philadelphu.s 


G 






Cladrastis D, H 






Phellodendron 


... .H 


Wistaria ... 


.C, F, 1 


Cletlira F 


Juglans 


...B, 1 


PcipulUS .... 


..A. G 






Colutea G 


Juneberry . . 


B 


Ptelia 


...A, 1 


Xanthoceras 


...C, H 



* Seeds often reqiuire two years to germinate. 

A Seeds sown as soon as ripe; hardy kinds in frames outdoors, tender ones in green- 
house. 

]R Seeds stratified over winter and sown in spring in nursery row. 
f*^ Seeds, spring or fall sown, in frames. 
T) Layers during svunnier. 



CULTIKAL INSTRUCTIONS 



303 



F^ Soft or soiiii-inaturo cuttings in early suiunicr. 

f Soft or senii-niature cuttings in winter or spring, in gentle heat. 

(^ Mipe wood cuttings in fall, winter, or spring. 

J^ Root cuttings in sjiring. 

J Xanied varieties and rare species grafted on seedling or cutting-grown stockg. 



Table 3— EVERGREENS 



Abies A 


D, E 


Ci.stus .... 


A. H 


Kalmia .... 


..B, D 


rinus 


.A. D 


Andromeda . . . 


.B, F 


Cotoneaster 


H 






Pseudotsuga A 


B, E 


Azalea 


...H 






Ledum 


F 










Daplnio ... 


G 


Leiopliyllum 


..C. F 








C 


Em pet rum 


H 




..C, F 


Retinospora . . 


.A, D 










Rliododendron 


.A, D 


Calluna 


...H 


Ilex 


....A, D 


Malionia .... 


H 






Cedrus 


A. D 










Taxus 


.A, D 


Chama'cyparis 


...A 


■Jiiniiierus . 


.A, D. H 


Pieea 


..D, E 


Tluiya ...'.... 


.A. D 



J\ Sow seeds in spring. Transplant seedlings to nursery rows following spring. 

BSow freshly ripe .seeds thinly in peaty-sandy soil, or sphagnum, in pots or pans 
CJivo ample air in cold frame. Plant out seedlings following spring, or, if too small 
prick out in flats. 

^j! Sow newly ripe seeds in light, well-drained .soil in cold frame. 

D Graft named varieties and siiarse seeding species during winter on fall potted 
seedlings. Veneer grafts generally do best. 

ESet seedlings of glowing tips in sand in shaded frame. Don't disturb from six 
months to a year. 

fi Layers i>egged down in September will root in a year or less. 

G Mature cuttings in fall in well-drained pots of peaty soil in propagating bed Keen 
cool during winter. Give gentle heat in spring. Pot rooted plants singly, aiid crow 
in mild but close heat till established. Harden off in fail. *" 

J-J Mature wood cuttings in late summer in sand, in cold frames or cool bouse. 



Tai'.i.k 4— MNES 



Actinidia 

Akebia 

Ampelopsis 

Apios 

Aristolo<'hi» 

Bignonia 



Celastrus 
t'lematis 



Decumaria 
Euonymus 



Hiinitilus 
llionuea 



Lonicera. 
Lycluin 



Periploca 
Rose, Climbing 

Wistaria 



Seed.s in late winter or early siiring: lajers during spring or summer: mature wood 
cuttnigs m summer or fall, in mild heat: greenwood cuttings in winter. 



304 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



Table 5— HARDY PERENNIALS 



Acanthus 


Cassia 


Haemodorum 


Polygon atum 


Achillea 


Catananche 


Hedysarum 


Polygonum 


Aconite 


Centaurea 


Hepatica 


Poteutilla 


Acorus 


Centranthus 


Heracleum 




Acta?a 


Cerastium 


Hesperis 


Ranunculus 


Adonis 


Chelone 


Heuchera 


Rheum 


.Ajuga 


Chrysanthemum 


Hollyhock 


Rudbeckia 


Altha?a 


Cimicifuga 


Houstonia 




.\lvssum 


Clematis 


Hyssop 


Salvia 


.Amsonia 


Clintonia 




Sanguinaria 


Anchusa 


Coreopsis 




Saponaria 


Anemone 






Saxifraga 


Anthemls 
Apios 


Delphinium 

Diantlius 

Dicentra 

Dictanuius 

Digitalis 

Dodecatheon 

Doronicum 

Dracocephalum 


Liatris 


Scabiosa 
Shepherdia 


Aquilegia 

Arabis 

Arenaria 


Linaria 
Lobelia 
Lychnis 


Silene 

Silphium 

Sisyrinchiiun 


Armeria 
Arnica 
Artemisia 
Arundo 


Lysimachia 
I^thruni 

Mandragora 


Stachys 
Staphylea 
Statice 
Stokesia 


Asperula 




Menisperinum 




Asphodeline 


Echinopa 




Tansy 


Auijretia 


Elecampane 


Miseanthus 


Thalictrum 


Auricula 


Epimedium 




Trillium 


Baptisia 


Eryngium 
Eupatorium 


Oenothera 


Trollius 


Bellis 






Uvularia 


Bocconia 




Pentstemon 




Bnltonia 


Gaillardia 


Phalaris 


Verbascum 


Borago 


Galega 


Phlomis 


Veronica 




Gentiana 


Phlox 




Callirrhoe 


Geum 


Platycndon 


Wormwood 


Campanula 


Gynerium 


PodophyllUTn 




Caryopteris 


Gypsophila 


Polemoniuni 


Yucca 



Sow the above named species (1) outdoors after danger of frost in beds of finely pul- 
verized, light soil, transplant to permanent place when large enough to become established 
before cold weather; (2) or sow the seed between midsummer and early fall in cold 
frames, protect over winter, and plant the seedlings in the spring: (3) start the seeds 
during midwinter in the greenhouse, transplant to small plots, and shift when rooted. In 
case three, plants kept growing sturdily will usually bloom the first season. 



Table 


6 


—BULBS, 


CORMS AND 


TUBERS 




Agapanthus 

Allium 


.A 
.B 
.E 
D 
D 
.E 
.E 
.E 
.E 
.A 

.A 
.A 
.B 

.C 
.A 
B 
.B 

.E 


Crocus 

Dahlia 

Dicentra 

Dioscorea 

Eranthis 

Eremurus 

Erythronium 

Eucharis 


...B 

...A 
...E 
...E 

...E 
...E 
...E 
...E 

...B 


Helleborus 

Hemerocallis 

Hippeastrum 

'Hyacinth 

Iris A 


A 
A 
B 

B 
B 

.B 

.F 
.B 

.B 
.B 

.B 


Ornitliogalum . 
Oxalis 

Pa?ony 

Polianthes .... 
Puschkinia 

Ranunculus . . . 
Richardia 

Scilla 

Sparaxis 

Tigridia 

Trillium 

Triteleia 

Trilonia 

Tulipa 

Zephyranthes" . . 


...B 
...B 


Alstrnemeria 

Amaryllis 

Aniorphoiihallus , 
Anemone 


...E 
...B 
...B 






...A 


Apios 

Astilbe 

Begonia 

Hdussingaulia .,. 
Uravoa 

Caladium 

Canna 

Chiiinodoxa 

("i)lchicun\ 

Convallaria 


Kniphofla 

Leucoium 

Lilium 

IMilla 

Muscari 

Narcissus 


...C 

...B 
...E 

...E 
...E 
...D 
...D 
...B 

...B 


Fritillaria 

Funkia 

Galanthus 

Galtonia 

Gladiolus 


...A 
...A 

...B 
...B 
...B 



* See 115 for special treatment. 
/^ Seeds. Offsets, tubers, or divisions of old plants early in spring. 



CULTURAL INSTRUCTIONS 



30s 



B Seeds. Bulbt'ls or offsets fall planted under glass, or spring planted out of doors. 

CTuImth. dried or rested. Divido largo, healthy ones. Keep potg In moderate night 
teniiicrature; syringe onee or twice daily. 

IJ Seeds. Offsets or divisions at any time. 
F. Seeds. Division of roots fall or spring. 
p Uulbels as soon as possible after foliage matures. 

Table 7— GREENHOUSE AND HOUSE PLANTS 



Abutilon 


...A 


Begonia 

IJouganvillea . 
liouvardia . 

Caladium 

Calla 

Canna 

Carnation .... 
rhrysanthemum 
Clerodendron A, 
Clevia 

Cobnea 

Coleus 

Colocasia 

Dieffenbachia . 

Eueharis 


...A 
...F 
.B, C 

.C, G 
...C 
...C 
...A 
..H 
C, E 

...A 
...8 
...G 

...G 

...D 




. . . A 


Polianthes 
Plumbago .... 

Richardia 

Sanseveriera . . 

Smila.x 

Swainsona 

Thunbergia . . 




Acalypha 

Acanthus .... 
jVchyranthes . . . 
Agapantlius ... 

Ageratum 

Allamanda .... 

Aloysia 

Alternantbera 

Alyssum 

Amaryllis 


...B 
...C 
...A 
...B 
...A 
...B 
...B 
...A 
...A 
...D 
...C 
...A 




B 


...B 


Geranium . . . 

Hibiscus 

Hydrangea . . 

Jasminum .. 

Lantana . . . . 


A 

..A, H 
A 

..B, F 

A 

A 


...E 
...E 
...A 

...H 
...D 


Tuberose 

Vallota 


...D 

n 


Anthericum . . . 
Antirrhinum ... 


Moon-flower . 

Pandanus . . . 
Passiflora ... 
I'elargonium . 


B 

..B. E 

A 

A 


Asparagus 

Aspidistra 


...C 
...E 

A 


\ erbena 


...A 

c 


Zephyranthes . 






...D 



A [rilwe sori!* *=""'"^^ "' ""y t'"'"^' """■■• «''™ temperature; after rooting pot in 

B Green woodcuttings, warm temperature: late winter or early spring. 

C ^ot division or root cuttings; autumn or early spring. 

IJ Off-sets or divisions; whenever mature enough to remove. 

E Division, crown, or suckers at any time. 

Y* Semi-mature wood cuttings, warm temperature. 

G Tubers, dry or resting, moderate temperature; syringed daily at least once. 

I"! Semi-mature wood cuttings, fall, winter or spring. Low temperatura. 





Table 


8— FERNS 






Aerostichnm 

Adiantuni A 

Alsophila 

Anemia 

Aspidium 

Asplenium A 

Botrychium 

Cheilanthes 
Civotium 


Cyathea 

Cyrtonium 

Cystopteris 

'Davallia 
*Dicksonia 
Doodia 
Doryopteris 

Gleichenia 
Gymnogramma 


A 


Lastrea 
I.omaria 
*Lygodium 

Nephrodium 
"Nephrolepis 

Onychium 
'Osmunda 


*Platycerium 

Platyloma 

*PoIypodium 

Polystichum 

Pteris 

Scolopendrium 
••Selaginella 


A 



' Propagated largely by division. 
Propagated by short cuttings in pots or pans in early spring. 
Steam steriHzed soil at high temperature to destroy fern enemies. 



3o6 



I'l.WI I'Ui 11' NCAIION 



Soil mixture: Two parts facli parcloii Icaiii and peat (or leaf iiioltl) and ono part 
rlean, sliarp sand. Usb only stcrilizcil (linilcd and cooled) water for watering. Bu.v onl.v 
best grade spores. Sow in Mareli. .Inl.v. or October, fse cans 12 inclie.s .S(iuare and 4 
inches deep, or G-incli % pots, eadi a lliinl toll cif drainage (cinders). Press soil tlrmly 
in pots or pans. Pass surtaee Ijalf ineli tlirouKli ',H-incli .-icreen. level, jiress and water. 
Wait four liours before dustins spores on snrlace. l"se no nioie siiores for 12-lncli pan 
than will pile on a 14-incli circle. Have no lnee/.e wliile .sowmi,'. Don't cover with soil. 
Place shaded sash over fianic and keeii closed tell uerniination starts, then give air. little 
at flr.st. more gradually till fronds apiieai and are hardened enoUKh to have sash removed. 
Use no water for first two oi' more wccUs. Weed out undesirable plants. When pot 
surface is covered with little ferns. iiricU out in clnmiis of three t" six just level with 
surface of other flats. When chnnjis have three or four fronds, transidant singly in other 
lians or flats, and later into 2 or 2',4-inch pots. 

A Certain ferns (among them species and varieties of genera marked A in the list) 
bear detachable buds, bulhlets. or plantlets on fronds and pinna?. These, iilanted 
in well-drained seed pans, usually take root in less' than two weeks. Others may be 
divided just before the plants start to grow. 



Taiili. ()— 1V\L^IS 



Acanthophfenix 


flinostigm^i 


1 Iyo|ihorh:o 


Pinanga 


Acanthorhiza 


'Coc(..3 


HyphaMio 


*Pecctocomia 


Acrocomia 


Corypha 




Pritchardia 


Archonphcenix 


Cycas 


J uba?a 


Ptychosperma 


Areea 


Cyphophoeiiix 






Arenga 


Cyphospernia 


Kentia 


Rapliia 


Astrocarpum 




kentiopsis 


Rhapidophyllum 


Attalea 


Dictosperma 




Khapis 




Bidvmosperma 


Latania 


Rhopalostylis 




Dion 


Licuala 


Boscheria 


«Bactri9 


Diplothemium 


Linospadix 




Bacularia 


Drymophlftus 


Livistonia 


*SabaI 


Borassua 


Dyp..is 


l.odoicea 


Scheilea 


Brahea 






Seaforthea 




Elfpis 


Martinezia 






Erythea 


Maxiliininia 


Thrinax 


Calamus 


Euterpe 




♦Trachycarpus 


Calyptrogyne 








*Caryota 


*Geonoma 






Ceratolobus 

Ceroxylou 

Certostachys 

Chamaedorea 

Chamserops 


Hedyscepe 

Howea 

Hydriastele 


Oreodoxa 

'Phrenix 
Phytelephas 


Verschaffeltia 

'■Walliehia 
Washingtonia 



' Easily grown from suckers. 

Sow seeds thickly. V^-iuch deep, in sandy loam in .P™l'agar'"e /''^nie '" .T^"™ fj^.f "J' 
house Give plenty of heat and moisture. SoTiie species require two or three weeks to 
geminate others t^vo months, still others three. yeais Possibly the J""*"'-'';,^'^''^, "fo ^o 
(47) may shorten these longer times. Kee|, night temperature 55 '» 6^ ^ , ,^fj.'" 'V 
7.5 Supply ample water. Prick otf in small pots when first leaves are well foimed. and 
shift to Targer sizes slowly, but as needed. Use friable compost of rotted sod and stable 
manure, with peat, leaf mold and sand. 



Table io— WATER PLANTS 



Acorus A 

Alisma B 

Aponogeton ... .8, C 

Cabomba A, B 

Caltha A, B 

C.viierus A, B 

Eichhornia ... .A, B 



J uncus A 

JussiiTa (.fussieua) B 



Limnanthemum ..B 
Limnocharis A, B, E 

Ludwigia B 

Lyriopliyllum . . . . B 



Nelumbium A*, B, F 
N'ymphwa B, F 

Oroiitium A, B 

Ouvirandra ... .A, B 

Peltandra A. B 

Pontederia ... .A, B 
Sagittiiria A, B 



Saururus H 

Seirpus (Juiicus)..A 

Traiia B 

Tyiiha A, B 

Victoria Q 

Zizania B 



< Seeds sliould be cut to admit water. 
y^ Division in spring. 



cri.'irKAi. ixsTKrc'noNS 



307 



R Nt'wly liijo swds in imls iiluiigi'il in ■niitor, uiiUtr glass. 

^1 Off-sets at any tiiiio. 

n Division after flower. 

F. ItuiiiKTs. or sloliii. 

p Cuttings of rhizome (12 inches long), kept under water when out of doors. 

GKeep seeds wet from ripeninK till .sown. I'lace in sandy loam in pots. Immerse 2 
inches dee|) in water never less than 80 degrees, in well-lighted tank, near the glass. 

f^ Sow in moist loam. 



Table ii— ORCHIDS 



Acanthephippium 


A 


Hroiiglitonia ... 


...A 


Dendrobium . . . 


..B 


Phalus 


. ,.A 


Aeeras 


.A 


liulboijliyllura . 


...A 


"»Disa 


..A 


»*»l>hala;nopsi3 


..B 


Ada 


.A 




...A 












.B 

A 








...B 


***Saccalobium 
Satyrium .... 


B 


Aganisia 






...A 


.•Vnguloa 


A 


Calanthe 




L:i'lia 


...A 


Sobralia 


...A 


Anoectoehilus ..A 


B 


*l'alopogon 




I.ycaste 


..A 


Stanhopea . . . 


...A 


Ansellia 


.A 


*t'alyiiso 












Aplectrum 


.A 




...A 


Masdevallia ... 
Ma.\illaria 


..A 
..A 


Thunia 

Trichopilia . . . 


.. B 




Cattleva 


...A 


...A 


Barkeria 


.B 
.A 


Cielogyiie 

t'ompareltia ... 


...A 
...A 


Miernstylis 

Milloina 


..B 
. .A 


Vanda 

Vanilla 


B 


**Batemannia ... 






A, B 


nietia A 


B 


Cynihidinni .... 




Odniit<iglossum 


A 






IJrassia 


• A 


Cyprepedium . . 


. . . A 


OMcKliiini 


..A 


Zygopetalum . 


...A 



* Offsets usually employed. Difficult to liaiidle. 
*» Offsets al.so. 

f'oVm^planttets'on thrro'otr'"^'' "" "'" '"''" '^'^"'^ ""^" '''''"' ^"^ <"> ""o^': <"""s 
• 

Seeds. Hand pollination of cultivated orchids is necessary to secure seeds Phnos,- 
nearly related genera or species where hybrids are desired, because distantly relkted ones 
may not take to each other, or the offspring may resemble the seed-b'earine narent' 
Select for the seed-beanng parent a plant of vigorous health, free growth and flowerhig 
habit, because the oltspriiig usually -'take after the mother" in form but after the 
••father" in flower color. To pollinate, place one or more ripe pollen Ses on he rig lU 
stigma of the lenialo (lower. Seeds require sometimes three to six months but oftenVr a 
year, to ripen. Sow seed as soon as ripe by dusting on surface of pots or b-iski'fs in 
winch liealthy plants of the same genus arc grown. Keep moist with verv fine rose t I 



.seedlings are started. Spring-sown .seed usually sprouts quickest. SoniospWes require a 
.vear or more o germinate. When seedlings have two or three leaves plant i„ flats o? 




3o8 



PLANT PROPAGATION 

Table 12— CACTI 



Cereus 



Echinocactua 
Ecbinopsis 



Bpiphyllum 



Mamillaria 
Melocactus 



Opimtia 



Pelecyphora 
Pereskia 



Phyllocactus 
Pilocereus 



Rhipsalis 



Sow seeds in sandy soil in semi-shade till sprouting starts; then expose to sun. 

Water with care. Seeds giva best results particularly with species marked A. 
Make cuttings, or make off-sets, with sharp knife. Lay in sun or on dry sand till 
wounds heal and roots start; then pot in sandy soil and syringe daily, or ofteiier. 
Graft weak or sprawling kinds on strong or erect species (E.g., Peretkia aculeapa, 
p. Bleo, Cereus Peruvanlus and C. Tortuotus). See 329. 



INDEX TO PLANT LISTS 



The numbers refer to the i'Uiiit Lists on the 
preceding pages. 



Aaron's Beard. See Hypericum. 2 

Abies. 3 

Abroiiia. 1 

Abutilon. 1, 7 

Acacia. I 

Acalyplia. 7 

Acantheijlilpjiiuni. 11 

AcantliophiEiiix. 9 

Acanthorhiza. 9 

Acanthus, 5. 7 

Acer. 2 

Aceras, 11 

Achillea. 1. 5 

Achyranthes. 7 

Aconite. 5 

Aconite. Winter. See Eranthis, 6 

Acorus. 5. 10 

Acrachinium. 1 

Acrocomia. !) 

Acrostichum, 8 

Actaea. 5 

Actinidia. 4 

Ada. 11 

Adam's Needle. See Yucca. 5 

Adiantum. 8 

Adlutnia. 1 

Adonis. 1. 5 

Aerides. 11 

Aesculus. 2 

African Corn Lily. See Ixia. fi 

African Lily. See Agapanthus. 6 

Aganisia, 11 

Agapanthus. 6. 7 

Ageratum. 1. 7 

Agrostemma. See Lychnis, 1 

Atlanthus. 2 

Ajuga. 5 

Akebia, 2. 4 

Alder. See Alnus. 2 

Alder. Black. See Ilex. 3 

Alkanet. See Ajichusa, 1 

Allamanda. 7 

Allegheny Vine. See Adluniia. 1 

Allium. 6 

Allspice. Carolina. See Calycantlius, 2 

Almond. 2 

Alnus. 2 

Aloysia. 7 

Alsopbila. 8 

Alstrcemeria. C 

Alternanthera. 7 

Altha-a. 5 

Alum Root. See Heuchera. 1 

Alyssum. 1, 5. 7 

Amarar.thus. 1 

Amaryllis. 6. 7 

Amazon Lily. See Eucharis. fl. 7 

Amazon Vine. See Uioscorea, C 

Amelanchier. 2 

Aniorpha. 2 

Amorfibophallus. 6 

Ampelopsis. 1, 2, 4 



Amsonic. 5 

Anchusa. 1. .5 

Andromeda. 3 

Anemia. 8 

Anemone. 1. 5. 6 

Angelonia. 1 

Angraecum. See Aerides, 11 

Anguloa. 11 

Anoectochilus. 11 

Anomatheca. 6 

Ansellia. 11 

Anthemis. 5 

Anthericum. G. 7 

Antirrhinum. 1. 7 

Apios. 4, 5. 6 

Aplectrum. 11 

Aponogetoni. 10 

Apple. May. See Podophyllum, 5 

Aquilegia. I. 5 

Arabis. 5 

Aralia. 1 

Arbor Vitae. See Thuya, 3 

Arclionophfenix. 9 

Arcotis. 1 

Ardisia. 7 

Areca. 9 

Arenaria. 5 

Arenga, 9 

Aristclochia. 1, 4 

Armeria. 5 

Arnebia. 1 

Arnica. 5 

Arrowwood. See Viburnum, 2 

Artemisia. 5 

Arundo. 5 

Ash. See Fraxinus. 2 

Ash Berry. See Barberry, 2 

Asparagus. 1. 7 

Asperula. 5 

Asphodeline. 5 

Aspidistra. 7 

Aspidium. 8 

Asphenium. 8 

Aster, 1 

Aster. Stokes. See Stokesia, 5 

Astilbe, 6 

Astrocarpum. 9 

Atamasco Lily. See Amaryllis. G, 7 

Attalea. 9 

Aubrieta. .5 

Aucuba. 7 

Auricula. 1. .") 

Australian Feather Palm. See Ptycho- 

sperma. 9 
Autumn Crocus. See Colchicum. C 
Avens. See Geum. 1. 5 
Azalea, 2 

B 

Baby's Breath. See Gypsophiia, 1, 5 

Bactris, 9 

Bacularia. 9 

Bald Cypress. See Ta.xndium, 2 



309 



310 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



JJallooii Flower. 1. See riatycodoii, 5 

Uallooii A'iiie, I 

Ualsam. 1 

Bane Berry. See Actaea. 5 

Baptisia. 5 

Barberry. 2 

Barkeria. 11 

Barrcnwort. See Eindedhim. 5 

Bartoiiia. 1 

Basswood. See Tilia, 2 

Bastard Indigo. See Amorpha, 2 

Batemania. 11 

Bay, Giant. See Rliododendron, 3 

Bayberry. See Myriea. 2 

Bay. Swamp. See Magnolia. 2 

Bean. Sacred or water. See Nelumbium, 

Nymphaea. 10 
Beard Tongue. See Pentstemon. 1, 5 
Bear's Breech. See Acanthus, 5 
Bear's Grass. See Yucca, 5 
Beech. See Fagus. 2 
Begonia, 1, 6. 7 

Bellflower. See Campanula, 1, 5 
Bellis, 1, 5 

Bell. Silver. See Halesia. 2 
Bells, Coral. See Huchera, 1, 5 
Berberis. See Barberry. 2 
Betonica (Bettony). See Stachys, 5 
Betula, 2 
Bignonia, 1, 2, 4 
Bilberry. See Vaccinium, 2 
Biota. See Thuya, 3 
Birch. See Betula. 2 
Birthwort. See Aristolochia, 1, Trillium. 

5, 6 
Bittersweet. See Celastrus. 1. 4 
Bladdernut. See Staphylea. 5 
Bladder Senna. See Colutea. 2 
Blanket Flower. See Gailardia. 1. 5 
Blazing Star. See Liatris. 5 
Bleeding Heart. See Dicentra. 5, 6 
Bletia, 11 
Bloodroot. See Sanguinaria. 5. Haemndo- 

rum 5 
Blue Beech. See Carpinus. 2 
Bluebell. See Campanula. 1. 5 
Blue-eyed Grass. See Sisyrinchium. 5 
Blue Spirfea. See Car.vopteris. 5 
Bluets. See Houston ia, 5 
Bocconia. 5 
Boltonia, .5 

Boneset. See Eupatorium, 5 
Borago, 5 
Borassus. 9 

Boston Ivy (Vine). See Ampelopsis, 4 
Botrychium, 8 
Bougainvillea. 7 

Bounc'ing Bet. See Saponaria, 5 
Boussingaultia, 6 
Bouvardia, 7 

Box. See Buxus. 3 s 

Box Thorn. See Lycium, 4 
Brachycnme, 1 
Brahea, !) 
Brassia, 11 
Bravoa. 6 

Briar. Sweet. See Rosa. 2 
Bridal Wreath. See Spinea. 2 
Broom. D.vers'. 1. Scotch. See Cytisus, 2 
Broughtonia. 11 
Browallia. 1 

Brugmansia. See Datura. 1 
Br.vonopsis. 1 
Buckeye. See Aesculus, 2 
Buckthorn. See Rhamnus. 2 
Buff.ilo Berry. See Shepherdia. !) 
Bugleweed. See Ajuga. .5 
Bugbane. Bugwort. See Ciniicifuga. 5 



Bulhophylhim. 11 

Bullrusb. See Juncus, 11 

Burlingtonia. 11 

Burning Bush. See Eunonymus. 2. 4 

Buttercup. See Ranunculus. 5. (i 

Butterfly Flower. See Schizanthus. 1 

Butternut. See .Tuglans. 2 

Button Bush. See Cephalanthus, 2 

Buxus, 3 

C 

Caljbage Palm. See Areca. 9 

Cabomba, 10 

Cacalia, 1. See Seneclo 

Cactus, 12 

Caladium, 6. 7 

Calampelis. 1 

Calamus. 9 

Calandrinia. 1 

Calanthe. 11 

Calceolaria, 1 

(^alendula, 1 

(^alico Bush. See Kalmia. 3 

California Poppy. See Eschscholtzia 1 

Calla. 7. See Richardia, 6, 7 

Calliopsis. 1 

Callirrhoe, 5 

Calluna, 3 

Calopogon. 11 

Caltha. 10 

Calycantbus. 2 

Calypso, 11 

Calyptrogyne, 9 

Camomile. See Anthemis. 5 

Campanula. 1. 5 

Canipernella. See Narcissus. G 

Campion. Evening. Ro.se. See Lychnis, 1, 

Campion. See Silene. 1 

Canary Vine. 1 

Candle Berry. See Myriea. 2 

Candytuft, 1 

Canna, 1. 6. 7 

Canterbury Bells. 1 

Caragana. 2 

Cardinal Flower. See Lobelia. 1, 5 

Carnation, 1, 7 

Carpinus, 2 

Carya. See Hickory, 2 

Caryopteris. 5 

Car.vota. 9 

Cassia. 5 

Chamaedorea. 9 

Chaniferops, 9 

Chamomile. See Anethemis, 5 

Chamomile. False. See Boltonia. 5 

Cheilanthes, 8 

Chelone, 5 

Cherry, Indian. See Rhamnus. 2 

Cherry, Cornelian. See Cornus. 2 

Chestnut. 2 

Cliilean Lily. See Alstrcenieria. C 

China Aster. See Aster. 1 

Castalia. See Nymphiva. 10 

Castanea. See Chestnut. 2 

Castor Bean. See Ricinus. 1 

Catalpa, 2 

Catananche, 5 

Catasetum, 11 

Catchfly. See Silene. 1. 5 

Cat-Tail. See Typlia. 10 

Cattleya. 11 

Ceanothus. 2 

Cedar. See Cedrus. 3, ,Tuniperus, 3 

Cedrus, 3 

Celastrus, 1, 4 

Celosia. 1 

Celtis. 2 

Centaurea. 1, 5 

Centranthus, 5 



JM)i:X lU I'LAXT LISIS 



311 



flypsdiihila, 1. 



('cnlrfisoiiia. 1 

(■|-|ilial:iiitlilis, 

Ci rustniiii. 5 

iVruKilobus. :i 

Crii-idiplillmn. 

Ciiinis. 12 

t'cKixylou, y 

Cirtd.stach.vs, 1) 

Clialk I'lant. 

('Iiiiiii:i'cyi)aris. '.i 

ChiiHiuupin. '2 

('liiiiiiantlius. 2 

Cliinodoxa. 

Cliiistinas Riisi'. S.t IK-IU'Ikhus, fi 

Cliivsaiitliemuiii. 1, 5, 7 

Ciiiik-ifuga, 5 

I'iiieiaria. 1 

CiiKiuefoil. Seo I'litentilla. 5 

Cistus, 3 

Cladrastis, 2 

Clarkia. 1 

Clematis. 1, 4, 5 

Cleone. 1 

Cletlira. 2 

Clerodendrom, 7 

Cliaiithus. 1 

Clinostigma. 9 

(^lintonia, 5 

Clivia, 7 

('(>b:oa, 1, 7 

Cocfinea, 1 

('(icKscomb, 1. Seo Celosia, 1 

(\)Coanut. See Cocos. 9 

(•(i(/<is. !l 

("dilngyne. 11 

Colchichum, 6 

Colelis, 1, 7 

Cclliiisia. 1 

Colocasia. 7. Sea Caladium. 7 

I'Dliinibine. Seo Aauilegia, 1. 5 

Ciiluiiibine. Featlieied. See Tlialictbrum, 5 

Colutea, 2 

("omiiarettla. 11 

("oinpass I'lant. See Silphium, .'> 

Cone Flower. See Kudbeekia. 1. 5 

Convallaria, 6 

Convolvulus. 1 

Coreopsis. 1. '> 

Cork Tree. See Pbelodendron. 2 

Corn Lily. African. See Ixia, G 

Cornus. 2 

Corypha, i) 

Cosmos. 1 

Ciitoneaster. ."> 

Cowslip. 1. See Primula 1. Caltba. 10 

Crakelierry. See Empetrum. o 

Cranberry bush. See Viburnum. 2 

Cranesbill. See Geranium. 1. 7 

Crataegus, 2 

Crepis, 1 

Cress. Rock. See Arabis. 5 



[IIS 



Crowherr.v. See Empetrum. 2 

Crowfoot. See Ranunculus. 5. G 

Crown Imperial. See Kritillaria. C> 

Cuckoo Flower. See l>ychnis. 1. .5 

Cucumber tree. See Magnolia. 2 

Cu<-iimis. 1 

Cuphea. 1 

Cup-plant. See Silphium. 5 

Currant. Indian. See Symphoricarpus. 

Cushion Flower. See Seabiosa. 1. 5 

Cyathea. 8 

Cyclamen. 1 

Cymbidium. 11 

Cyperus. 10 

Cyphophoenix. 

Cyphosperma. !i 

Cyiirepidium. 11 



Cypress. Ua)d. See Taxodiuni. 2 
C.vprcss Vine. 1 
Cyrtonium. .S 
Cystopterls. 8 
Cytisus, 2 



!>. Chrysantliemum. I. 
See lirachvcome. 1 
Rocket. 1 



fi. Funkia. fi 



1. Pink. 1. 



Dairodil. See Narcissus 

Dahlia, 1. (i 

HaLsy. See Rellis. 

Dai.sy. Swan River, 

Dame's Violet. Si 

Daiihne. ;; 

Datura. I 

Davallia. 8 

Day Uly. See Deiiwrocallis 

Decuniaria. 4 

Deliihinium. 1, ." 

Dendrium. See Leiophvlhim 

Deiidrobinm. II 

Deutzia. 2 

iJianthus. 1. See Carnatioi 

Sweet William. I. 5 
Dieentra. 5. G 
]*icksonia. .*^ 
Dictamiiiis, r, 

Dictyospcniia. !i. See Areca. 9 
Di(lyiii(ispcriiia. !) 
Dielytra. Seo Dieentra. 6 
Diervilla. 2 
Dieffenbachia. 7 
Digitalis, 1, 5 

Dimoriihantus. See Aralia, 1 
DimorpUotheca, 1 
Dion. 9 
Dio.scorea. fi 
Diplothemium, 9 
Disa, H 

Dittan.v. See Dictamnus. ,'5 
Dock, Prairie. See Silphium. 5 
Dodecatheon, 5 

Dog's Tooth Violet. See Erythoroniuiii. fi 
Dogwood. See Cornus. 2 
Dolichos, 1 
Doodia. 8 
Doronicum. 5 
Doryopteris. 8 

Dracaena. 1. See Cordvline 
Dracocephalum. 5 

Dracontium. See Amorphophallus. R 
Dragon's Head. See Dracocephalum. r, 
Dragon Tree. See Dracaena. 1 
Drymophheus. n 

Dutchman's Pipe. See Aristolochia. 1. 4 
Dypsis. 9 



Eccremocarims. See Calamiielis. 1 

Echinocactus. 12 

Echinocystis. 1 

Echinops. !> 

Ecliinopsis. 12 

Edelweiss. 1 

Eglantine. See Rose. 2, 4 

Eiehhornia, 10 

Ela^agnus, 2 

Ehfis. y 

Elder. See Sambucus. 2 

Elecampane. .5 

Elm. Seo I'lmus, 2 

Empetium. :i 

Emjiress Tree. See I'aulownia. 2 

Epideiidrum. 11 

Eiiimedium. .'i 

lOiiipliylluiii. 12 

Eranthis. (I 

Kreiiiiirus. li 

EryiiKiiim (Kryngo), .I 



312 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



Erythea, 9 

Erythroiiium, G 

Eschscholtzia, 1 

Eucharis, 6. 7 

Eulalia. See Miscanthus, 5 

Enionymus, 2, 4 

Eupatoriuin. 5 

Euphorbia. 1 

Euterpe, i) 

Evening rrimrose. See Oenothera, 1 

Exochorda, 2 



Fagus, 2 

Feathered Hyacinth. See Muscarl, 6 

Kennel Flower. Se« Nigella. 1 

Flowering Feni. See Osmunda, 8 

Ferns, 1, 8 

Feverfew. See ChDr'santhemum, 1. 5 

Fig Marigold (Ice Plant). See Mesem- 

bryanthemum, 1 
Fir. See Abies. 3. Picea. 3. Pinus, 3 
Fire-pink. See Silene. 1 
Five-flnger. See Potentilla. 5 
Flag. See Iris, 6 
Flax. See Linum, 1 
Fleabane. See Inula, 1, 5 
Flower-de-Luce. See Iris. 6 
Flowering Onion. See Allium. G 
Forget-me-not. See Myosotis. 1 
Forsythia. 2 

Four o'clock. See Marvel-of-Peru, 1 
Foxglove. See Digitalis. 1, 5 
Frangula. See Rhanmus. 2 
Fraxinella. Sea Dictamnus, 5 
Fraxinus, 2 
Freesia, 6 

Fringe Flower. See Schizanthus. 1 
Fringe, Mountain. See Adlumnia. 1 
Fringe Tree, Fringe, White. See f:hionan- 

thus, 2 
Fritillaria, 6 
Fuchsia, 1, 7 
Fimkia, 



Gaillardia, 1, 5 

Galanthus, 6 

Galega. 5 

Galtonia, 6 

Garland Flower. See Daphne. 3 

Gas Plant. See Dictamnus, 5 

Genista, 7. See Cytisus, 2 

Gentiana, 5 

Geonoma, 9 

Geranium, 1, 7 

Geulder Rose. See Viburnum, 2 

Geum, 1, 5 

Gilia, 1 

(Jilliflower. See Mathiola, 1 

Ginkgo, 2 

Gladiolus, 1, 6 

(Jleditscliia, 2 

Gleichenia, 8 

Globe Amaranth, 1 

Globe Flower. See Trollius, 2, Kerria, 5 

Globe Ranunculus. See Trollius, 2 

Gloriosa. 7 

Glory-of-the-Snow. See Cluonodoxa, 6 

Gloxinia, 1 

Goat's Beard. See Astilbe. 6 

Goat's Rue. See Galege. 5 

Godetia, 1. See Oenothera. 1 

Golden Bell. See Forsythia. 2 

Gold Flower. See Hypericum. 2 

Golden Chain. See Laburnimi, 2 

Golden Glow. See Budbeckla, 5 

Golden Eod, 1 



Gomphrena. See Cclosia. 1 

Goumi. See Elicagnus, 2 

Gourds, 1 

Grape H.vacinth. See Muscari. C 

Grasswort. Starry. See C'erastium. 5 

Grevillea. 1 

Groimd Chorrj-. See I'hysalis. 1 

Groiuid Nut. See Apios. 5, 6 

Gimi. Sour. See Nyssa. 2 

Gum. Sweet. See Liciuidaniber, 2 

Gymnogranima, 8 

Gyneriuni, 5 

Gypsophila, 1 

H 
Hackherry. See Celtis. 2 
Halesia. 2 
Hammamells. 2 
Hairbell. See Campanula. 1 
Harlequin Flower. See Si)araxis, G 
Haw (Hawthorn). See Crataegus, 2 
Heartsease. See Pansy. 1 
Heather. See Calluna, 3 
Hedysarum. 5 
Hed.vscepe. 9 
Helenium, 1 
Helichrjsum, 1 
Heliotrope, 1 
Helleborus. G 
Hemerocallis, 6 
Hepatica, 5 
Heracleuni, 5 
Hesperus, 5 
Heuchera, 1, 5 
Hibiscus, 1, 7 
Hickory, 2 
Hippeastrum, G 

Hobble Bush. See AMburnum, 2 
Holly. See Ilex, 3 
Holly. Sea. See Erjnigiiun, 5 
Hollyhock. 1, 5 

Honey Locust. See Gleditschia, 2 
Honeysuckle. See I>onicera, 2. 4, Aquilegia, 

1, 4 
Hop. See Hamulus. 1 
Hop Honibean. See Ostrya, 2 
Hoptree. See Ptelia. 2 
Horkelia. See Potentilla. 5 
Hornbean. See Cari)inus. 2 
Horse Chestnut. See Aesculus, 2 
Houstonia. 5 
Howea, 9 
Humea, 1 
Humulus. 1. 4 

Husk Tomato. See Physalis, 1 
Hyacinth, Summer. See Galtonia, 6 
Hyacinth, Grape. See Muscari, 6 
Hyacinthus, 1, 6 
Hydrangea, 2, 7 
Hydriastele. 9 
Hyophorbae. 9 
Hypluene. 9 
Hypericimi, 2 
Hyssoi), 5 



Iberis. See Candytuft, 1 

Ice Plant, 1 

Ilex, 3 

Impatiens. 1. See Balsam. 1 

Imperial. Crown. See Fritillaria, G 

Incarvillea. 1 

Indian Fig. See Opuntia. 12 

Indian Shot. See Canna. 1 

Indigo. Sea Amphorpha, 2 

Ink Berry. See Hex, 3 

Inula. 1, 5 

Xpomcea, 1, 4 



INDEX TO PLANT LISTS 



313 



llKiinopsis. See Gillia, 1 

Iris. 6 

Iron Wood. See Ostrya, 'Z 

Itea. 2 

Ivy. See Aini)eloi)sis, 1 

Ivv. English. 1 

\\y, Kenihvortli. See Linaria. 5 

l.\ia. 6 



J 

.lacobean Lily. See Amaryllis. 6. 7 

.lacob's Ladder. See I'oleinoniuin. 5 

.lasminiun. 7 

.loe-pye Weed. Seti Bujiatorium, 5 

Jonquil. See Narcissus. 6 

.lulwea. 9 

.Fuglans. 2 

.1 uncus. 10 

.luno Berry. 2 

.lunii)erus (Juniiier). 3 

Jussicua (Jussiaja), lU 



Kalniia. 3 

Kaultus.sia. 1 

Kenihvorth lv.v. See hinaria, 5 

Kfiitia. U 

Kt'iitiiipsis, U 

Kfiiia. 2 

KiKi|> WetHl. Sw Centaurea. 1, 5 

Kriii'hdfla. (j. See Tritoina. 1 

1< licit Grass or Weed. See rolygonuiii, 5 

Kmhia. 1 

Kielreuteria, 2 

Kudzu Vine, 1. See Dolichos 



Labrador Tea. See Ledum, 3 

Laburnum, 2 

Lady's-Bardro]) Fuchsia, 1 

Lady's- Slipper. See Cyprepedium, 11 

Lielia, 11 

i.anib Kill. See Kalmia, 3 

Lantania. 1. 7, 9 

Lantern Plant. Chinese. See I'hysalis, 1 

Larch. See Liarix, 2 

l^rix. 2 

Larkspvir, 1. See Delphinium, 1, 5 

Lastrea, 8 

I.atania. See Livistonia, 9 

Lathyrus, 1 

Lattice Leaf. See Ouvirandra, 10 

Laurel, Giant. See Bhodoc'endron, 3 

Laurel. Mountain. See Kalmia, 3 

Laurestinus. See A'iburnum, 2 

Lavandula. See Lavender, 1 

Lavatera. 1 

Lavender. 1 

i^avender. Sea. See Statice, 5 

Layla. 1 

l^ead I'lant. Ainorpha, 2 

Ledum. 3 

Leiophyllum. 3 

Lemon \'erbena, 1 

lA^<intopodium. See Edelweiss, 1 

Leopard's Bane. See Doronicum, 6 

l>ei)achys. St'e Budbeckia, 1, 5 

Leptosiphon. 1 

Ixnicoium. ti 

l>«ucothoe. 3 

Liatris. 5 

l.icuala. a 

LiRUstnmi. 2 

Lilac. See Syringa, 2 

Lilitun. 6 

Lily. African. See Agapanthus, 7 

Lily-of-Uxe-Nile. See Calla. 1 



Lily, I)a,v. See Kiuikia, 0. lleinerocallls. 6 

Lily-of-the-\ alley. See Convallaria, 6 

Lily, Water. See Nymplima, 10 

Lily. Plantain. See Funkia. 6 

Lily. Homestead Lemon. See Hemerocal- 

Us. 6 
Lime Tree. See Tilia, 2 
Linmanthemuni. 10 
Linuiocharis. 10 
Linaria, 5 

Linden. See Tilia, 2 
Linospadix, 9 
Linum. 1 
Liquidambar. 2 
Liriodendron, 2 
Liver I>eaf. See Hepatica, 5 
Livlstonia. 9 
Lobelia. 1. 5. 7 

Locust Tree. See Bobinia. 2, Gleditscliia, 2 
Lodoleea. 9 
Ijomaria. 8 

London Prido. See Lyclmis, 1, 5 
Lonicera. 2, 4 

Ixiosestrife. See Lysimaehia. .'5 
Lophosiiermum. See Maurandia, 1 
Lotus-of-the-Nile. See Nymphfea, 10, Ne- 

lujnbium. 10 
Love-in-a-Mist. See Nigella, 1 
Ludwigia. 10 

Lungwort. See Mertensia, 5 
Lupinus, 1 
Ijjcaste. 1 1 
Lyduiis. 1. 5 
Lycluin. 4 
Lygodium. 8 

Lyre Flower. See Dicentra, 5, 6 
LyriophylUun. 10 
Lysimaehia. 5 
Lythrum, 5 

M 

Mace. Beed. See Typha. 10 

Madeira Vine. See Bous.singaultia, 6 

Madwort. See Alyssum. 1, 5 

Magnolia. 2 

Mahonia. 3. See Barberry. 2 

Maiden Hair Tree. See Ginkgo, 2 

Maize. See Zea. 1 

Mallow, 1 

Mallow. Poppy. See Callirhoe, 5 

Malopc, 1 

Malva. See Mallow, 1 

Mammillaria, 12 

Mandragora, 5 

Mandrake. See Mandragora, 5, I*odoi)hyl- 
luni, .5 

Maple. See Acer, 2 

Marguerite (Paris Daisy). See Chrysan- 
themum. 1. 5 

Marigold. 1. See Tatetes. 1. Calendula, 1 

MarshmalUnv. See Altluoa. 5 

Marslunarigold. See Caltha, 10 

Martinezia. 9 

Marvel-of-Peru. 1 

Masdevallia, 11 

Matrimony Vine. See Lycium, 4 

Mattholia. 1 

Matricaria. 1 

Maurandia. 1 

MaxiUniinia. 

Maxillaria. 11 

May-Apple. See Pi>doiihyllum. .5 

Meadow Kue. See Thalictrum. 5 

Meadow Saffron. See Colchicuui, G 

Meadow Sweot. See Spira;a, 2 

Melocactus. 12 

Menispermum, 2, 5 

Mertensia. 5 

Mesembryanthcmum. 1 



314 



TLAX'J' I'ROPAGATION 



Mexican Star of Bethlehem. See Milla. G 

Mezerium. See Daphne, 3 

Micliaelmas Daisy. See Aster. 1 

Microst.vlis, 11 

Mignonette. 1 

Mignonette Vine. See Boussingaultia, U 

Milfoil Achillea, 1. 5 

Milla, 6 

Miltonia, 11 

Mimosa, 1 

Mimulus, 1 

Mina, 1 

Mirabilis. Sea Marvel-of-I'eru, 1 

Miscanthus, 5 

Moek Orange. See rhiladelphiis, 2 

Momordica, 1 

Monke.v-flo'.ver. See Mlnuilus. 1 

Monk's Hood. See Aconite. 5 

Montbretia. See Tritonia. G 

Moonflower, 1, 7. IiJomcea 

Moon Seed. See Menispermum, 2, 'i 

Moorwort. See Andromeda, 3 

Morning Glory, 1. See Iponiiea 

Moiuitain Lanrel. See Kalmia. 3 

Mountain Fringe. See Adluniia. 1 

Mountain Tobacco. See Arnica, .'i 

Mourning Bride. See Scal)iosa. 1 

Mouse Bar. See Cerastium. 5 

Mugwort. See Artemisia, 5 

Mulberry, 2 

Mullein. 1. See Verbasciuii. 5 

Musa. 1 

Muscaji, 6 

Musk Plant. See Mimulus, 1 

Myosotis. 1 

Myrlca. 2 

Myrtle. Sand. See Leiophylluni. 3 

Myrtle, Bunning. See ^■inca. 1 



N 

Na.rcissus. 6 

>Jasturtium, 1 

Nelumbo. See Xelumbium, 10 

Nemesia, 1 

Nemopanthes, 2 

Nemophilia, 1 

Neuga, 9 

Nei)hrodium, 8 

Nephrolepis. S 

Nettle Tree. See Celtis, 2 

Nicotiana, I 

Nigella, 1 

Xiiiebark. See Siiinea. 2 

.N'olana, 1 

Norway Spruce. See I'Icea. 3 

Nuphar. See Nelunibium. 10, Nymiiluea, 10 

Nynii)ha>a, 10 

Nyssa. 2 



Oak. See (Juercus. 2 

Olieliscaria. See RudlH'ckia. 1 

Odontoglossum. 11 

Oenothera. 1 

Old Woman. See Artemisia. 5 

Oleaster. See Ebeagnus, 2 

Onycliiiun, S 

Oncldium. 11 

Optuitia. 12 

Orange, Mock. See riiiladolpbus 

Orcodora, ') 

Oniithogalum. ti 



Orontiuii 



O.sier 
OsMimula. b! 
O.strya. 2 
Ouvirandra, in 



1(1 
Sec Salix, 2. Cornus 



Oxalis, 1. G 
Oxydendrum, 2 



I'ajonia. 1, 6 

Pagoda Tree. See Sophora. 2 

Palava, 1 

Palma Christi. See Bichinu.s. 1 

Palmetto. See Sabal. 'J 

Pampas Grass. Se« Gynerium. S, Mis 

canthus, 5 
Pandanus, 7 
Pansy, 1 

I'apaver. See Poppy. 1 
Paris Daisy. See Cliysanthemum, 1. ." 
Parsley. Giant or Cow. See Heracleum, 
Pasque Flower. See Anemone. 1 
Passion Flower, 1. See Passiflora, 7 
Paulowiiia. 2 

Pea. Perennial. See Ijathyrus, 1 
Pea Tree. See Caragana, 2 
Pearl bush. See Exochorda, 2 
]'earls-of-Si)ain. See Muscari, 6 
Pelargoniiun. 1, 7 
Peltaudra, 10 
Pelecypbora, 12 
Pennisetum. 1 
Pentstemon. 1 

Pereskia. 12 , 

I'crilla, 1 
Periploca, 4 
Petunia, 1 
I'haius, 11 
l'liala?nopsis, 11 
Phalaris, 5 
Phellodendron. 2 
Philadelphus, 2 
Phlomis, 5 
Phlox, 1, 5 
Phoenix. 9 
Phyllocactus, 12 
Physalis. 1 
Phytelephas, 9 
Picea, 3 

Pickerel Weed. See Pontederia. 10 
Picotee. See Dianthus, 1, Carnation, 1 
Pilocereus, 12 
I'inanga, 9 
I'ine. See Pinus. 3 
I'iney. See Paeonia, 1, Pteony, U 
Pink, 1 

Pink, Fire. Wild. See Silene. 1. .-> 
Pink, Sea. See Statice, 5. Armcria. o 
Pink, Moss. See I'hlox, 1, 5 
Pinus. 3 
I'lantain. See Musa, 1 

Plantain. Lil.v. See Funkia. G 

Plantain. Water. See aUlsnia. 10 

Platycerium. 8 

I'lat.vcodon, 1. 5 

Platyloma. 8 

Plfctocomia, 9 

IMumbago. 7 

Plume. Apache. See Geum. 1. .j 

Phunc. I'oppy. See Bocconia. 5 

Podophyllum, 5 

I'likcr I'hint. See Kniithofia. G 

rolemoniuin. 5 

I'olianthes. B. 7 

I'olyantlius. 1. See I'rimula, 1 

f'olygonatum. 5 

t'olygoniun. 5 

I'olyiiodiiun. 8 

I'olysticlium. S 

I'ontederia. 10 

I'lHir Man's Orcliid. See Schiz iiilhus, 1 

I'oplar. SiH! I'opuUls, 2 

|-o|.py. 1 



lXl)i:.\ TO I'LAXT 1>1STS 



iK-) 



I'iil>)).v Mall.nv. S.'.- fallirliiie. 5 

I'oppy. I'liime. See Boccoiiia, 5 

r()l)Ulus. 2 

I'urtulara, 1 

I'utentilla. 5 

rrlekly I'ear. See Opuiitiii, 12 

Primrose. See I'riiiuila, 1 

I'rimrose, Evening. Oenotlicra, 1 

I'riniula, 1 

I'rinos. See Ilex. :; 

I'riteliardia. H 

I'livet. See I.,iKiistniin. 2 

I'seudcit.suRa. '.i 

IMeliii. 2 

I'teris. 8 

I't.vcliospernia. 'J 

I'ueraria. See DdliclKis. 1 

I'ulmonaria. See Mertensia. 5 

I'u.sclikinia. 6 

I'utt.v Root. See Aplectruni. 11 

I'vretlnuni. 1. See ('hrysantlienuuii, 1. 



IJaXKed Uiihiii. See l-.vclmi.s. 1 

Raliilx.w Klower. See Iris, G 

Uannneiilus, (i 

Raiiliia. "J 

Ued ("edar. See .lunliieru.s. :! 

Ueed. CJiant. See Arundo. 5 

Heed. (Jrass. See I'lialaris, 5 

Rcliniannia. 1 

Heiiaiitlieru. Sec Aerides. 11 

Ueseda. See Mignonette, 1, 

Uetiiiiispora. 'i 

Hliamnu.s. 2 

ltlia;:idoplivllinji. U 

Rl-apis. ;• 

Rlieuui. 5 

Rlu]i.sali.s, 12 

Rhodantlie. 1 

RhoddeliitdM. 1 

RlindiideMdniii, :: 

Rliniiald.slvlis. M 

Rliuliarh. See Rheum, 3 

Rieliardia. (i, 7 

Ric'inus. 1 

Robin. Ragged. See Lyclinis. 1, 5 

Robiiiia. 2 

Roelc ("rcss. See Araljis. 5. Aubertia, 

Rocket. 1 

Rock-ro.se. See ('i.stii.-:. i 

Rosa. 2 

Rosclieria, 9 

Rose. 1. 4 

Ro.se. Alpine. Sw RlKKiodcndttiii, .". 

Rose. Cliristmas. See IlelUI)iirus, 

Rosemary. Sea. See Statii-e. ."> 

Ro.se. Mo.ss. See Portulaia, 1 

Rosin Weed. See Silpliimn, 5 

Rndbeckia. 1. 3 

llnnniii;,' .Myrtle. See Vinca. 1 

Jtiie, Mead.iw. See Tlialictruni, 5 



Sabal. 

Sa<-(alol)ium. 1 1 

Sage. See Salvia. 1. ."> 

Sage, .lervisaleni. See I'hioniis. 5 

Sage Palm. See ("yeas, i) 

Sagittaria, 10 

St. Kruno's I.ily. See Antbericuii 

St. .Tohn's Wort. Stio llypericmii. 

St. I'eter's Wort. See Symiiliorie 

Salisburia. See Ciinkgo, 2 

Salix. 2 



Salpiglo.ssis. 1 

Salvia. 1. 5 

Sambucus. 2 

Sandwort. See Arcnaria, 5 

Sanguinaria. 5 

Sanseveria. 7 

Saponaria, 5 

Sassafras. 2 

Satyrium. 11 

Saururus. 10 

Savin. See .luniperus, 3 

Saxifraga. 5 

Scabiosa. 1. .5 

Sclieilea. !• 

Seliizanthus. 1 

Seilla, G 

Scirpus. 10. See Juncus. 10 

Scolopendrium, 8 

Seotcli Broom. See ("yti.sus. 2 

Screw Pine. See Pandaniis. 7 

Seaforthia. 9. See Ptychosperna. 'J 

Seal Flower. See Dicentura. 5. U 

Sea Pink. See Armeria, 5 

Selaginella. 8 

Senna. Bladder. See '.'olutea, 2 

Seii.sitive Plant. See Mimosa. 1 

Service Berry. See Amelanchier, 2 

Sliadbusb. See Amelanchier. 2 

Shcepberr.v. See Viburnum, 2 

Slie|)herdia, 5 

Sibbaldia. See Potentilla. 2. 5 

Siberian l"ea Tree. See C'aragana, 2 

Silene, 1. 5 

Silk Vine. See Periploca, 4 

Silphium. 5 

Silver Bell. See Halesia. 2 

Sinningia. See Glo.xinia, 1 

Sisyrinchium, 5 

Slipperwort. See Campanula, Calceolaria. 1 

Smilax, 1. 7 

Smoke Vine. See Adlumia, 1 

Snake Root. Button. See Liatris. .">. 

Snalie Root. White. See Eupatorium. o 

Snajidragon. See Antirrhinum. 1 

Sneezewort. See Helenium. 1 

Snowball. See Viburnum. 2 

Snowball. Summer. See Hydrangea, 2 

Snowljerry. See Symphoricarpus. 2 

Snowdrop. See Galanthus, (i 

Snowdrop Tree. See Halesia. 2 

SnowHake. See Leucoium, (i 

Soapwort. See Saponaria, 5 

Sobralia. 11 

Solomon's Seal. Sec I'ol.vgonatum. 3 

Sojihora. 2 

Sorrel Tree. See Oxydendrum, 2 

Sour Gum. See Xyssa. 2 

Southern Wood. See Artemisia, 5 

Sowbread. See Cyclamen, 1 

Spanish Bayonet. See Yucca. 5 

Sjiaraxis. 6 

Speedwell. See Veronica. '> 

Spindle Tree. See Euonymus, 2, i 

Spiraea, 2 

Spire Lily. See Galtonia, B 

Siiruce, See Picea. ;!, Abies, 3. Pseudo- 

tsuga, 3 
Spurge. See Euphorbia, 1 
SdUill. See Seilla, H 
S<iuiH, Striped. See Pu.schkinia, C 
Stachys, 5 

Staff Tree. See Celastrus, 1 
Stanliopea. 11 
Staphylea, .5 

Star Flower. See Triteleia, fi 
Star. Blazing. See Liatris. .1 
Star, Shooting. See Dodecatheon. !> 
Star-of-ISetblehem. See Ornithogaluni, G 
Starwort. See Aster, 1 
St at ice, 5 



J^lb 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



Stock. See Matthiola, 1 
Stokesia, 1, 5 

Stork's Bill. See Geranium, 1, 7, Pelar- 
gonium, 1, 7 
Strawberry Bush. See Euonymus. 2, 4 
Strawberry Geranium. See Saxafraga, 5 
Strawberry Tomato. See Physalis, 1 
Stuartia, 2 
Styrax, 2 

Succory, Blue. See Catananche, 5 
Sundrops. See Oenothera, 5 
Sunflower, 1 

Susan, Black-Eyed. See Budbeckia, 5 
Swainsona. 1. 7 

Swan River Daisy. See Brachycome, 1 
Sweet Briar. See Rose. 2. 4 
Sweet Flag. See Acorus. 2 
Sweet Pea. See Lathyrus, 1 
Sweet Scented Shrub. See Calycanthus, 2 
Sweet Sultan, 1 
Sweet William. 1, 5 
Sword Lily. See Gladiolus, 1, 6 
Symphoricarpus, 2 
Symplocos, 2 

Syringa. See Philadelphus, 2 
Syringa (Lilac), 2 



Tagetes. 1 

Tamarack. See Larix. 2 

Tamarisk. See Tamarix, 2 

Tansy, 5 

Taro. See Caladium, 6, 7 

Taxodlum, 2 

Taxus, 3 

Tea, New .Jersey. See Ceanothus, 2 

Tecoma. See Bignonia, 1, 2, 4 

Thalictrum, 5 

Thistle. Globe. See Echinops, 5 

Thoroughwort. See Eupatorium, 5 

Thorn. See Crataegus, 2 

Thorn. Box. See Lyolum, 4 

Thrinax, 9 

Thunbergia, 1, 7 

Thunia. 11 

Thuya. 3 

Tick Seed. See Coreopsis. 1, 5 

Tiger Flower. See Tigridia, 6 

Tigridia, 6, 7 

Tilia, 2 

Toadflax. See Linaria. 5 

Torenia, 1 

Trachycarpus, 9 

Trapa, 10 

Tree-of-Heaven. See Ailanthus, 2 

Trichopilia, 11 

Trillium, a, 6 

Triplet Lily. See Triteleia, G 

Triteleia, 6 

Tritoma. See Knlphofla, 6 

Tritonia. 5, 6 

Troll ius. 5 

Tropfeolura. 1 

Trumpet Creeper. See Bignonia, 1 

Tuberose. See Polianthes, 6, 7 

Tulipa (Tulip). 6 

Tulip Tree. See Liriodendron, 2 

Tulepo Tree. See Nyssa, 2 

Turtlehead. See Chelone, 5 

Typha, 10 

U 

tJlmus, 2 

Umbrella Plant. See Cyperus, 10 
Umbrella Tree. See Magnolia, 2 
Unilaria. 5 



Valerian, 1 

Valerian, Red. See Centhranthus, 5 

A'^allota, 7 

Vanda, 11 

Vanilla, U 

Varnish Tree. See Koelreuteria, 2 

Veitchia. 9 

Verbascum. 5 

A'erbena. 1. 7 

A'erbena. Sand. See Abronia, 1 

Verbena, Scented or Lemon. See Aloysia, 7 

A'eronica. 5 

A'erschaflfeltia, 9 

A'ervain. See A'erbena. 1. 7 

A'etch. Bitter. See Lathyrus, 1 

A'etchling. See Lathyrus, 1 

A'lburnum. 2 

A'ictoria. 10 

A'inea, 1, 7 

A'ine, Smoke. See Adlumia, 1 

A'iolet, 1 

Alolet. Dame's. See Rocket, 1 

A'irgilia. See Cladrastis. 2 

A'irginia Creeper. See Ampelopsis, 1, 2, 4 

A'irginian Stock, 1 

A'irgin's Bower. See Clematis, 1, 4, 5 

Viscaria, 1. See L.vchnis, 1 

A'olkameria. See Clerodendron, 7 

W 

AVahoo. See Euonymus. 2. 4 

AVahlenbergia. See Platycodon, 1, 5 

Wake-Robin. See Trillium, 5, 6 

AA'all Cress. See Arabis, 5 

Wallflower, 1 

Wallichia, 9 

AValnut. See Juglans, 2 

Washingtoiila, 9 

Water Lil.v. See Nymphaja, 10, Nelumbium, 

10. Victoria. 10. 
AVaxberry. See Symphoricarpus, 2 
AVayfaring Tree. See A'iburnum, 2 
AVeigela. See Diervilla, 2 
Wliin. See Cytisus, 2 
AVhite Cape Hyacinth. See Galtonia, 6 
AVhite Rod. See A'iburnum. 2 
AVhite Wood. See Liriodendron, 2, Tilia, 2 
AVild Bean. See Apios. 4. 5, 6 
AVild Senna. See Cassia, 5 
AA'illow. See Salix, 2 
AVillow. A'irginian. See Itea. 2 
AVindflower. See Anemone. 1. 5. G 
Winter Aconite. See Eranthis, 6 
Winter Cherry. See Physalis, 1 
AVistaria. 1. 2. 4 

Wistaria. Tuberous-Ronted. See Apios, G 
Witch-Hazel. See Hamanielis, 2 
AVolf-Bane. See Aconitem, 5 
AVoodbine. See Ampelopsis, 1, 2, 4 
AVood Hyacinth. See Scilla, 6 
AVormviood, 3 



Xanthoceras, 2 
Xiphion. See Iris, 6 



A'acclniumj 2 



Yarrow. See Achillea, 1, 5 
Tellowwood. See Cladrastis, 2 
Yew. See Taxus, 3 
Yulan. See Magnolia, 2 



Zea. 1 

Zebra Grass. See Miscanthus, 5 
' Zephyranthes, 6, 7 
Zinnia, 1 
Zizania, 10 
Zygopetalum. H 



INDEX TO PLANT LISTS 
Propagation ok Vegetables from Seeds 



317 



Kinds of Vegetables 


c 


J3 




0. 

< 




V 

a 

3 
•— > 




3 
< 


4-) 

0. 











Artichoke, French 





E 





B 


B 

















_ 




Artichoke, Jerusalem 


— 


— 


— ■ 


A 


A 





— 








— 


— 







- 


- 


J-' 

E 

E 


A 
B 
B 


B 
B 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 




Balm 




Basil 





Beans, bush 


G 


G 


G 


A 


C 


c 


C 


A 





— . 


— 


. 


Beans, pole and lima 


— 


— 


— 


— 


A 


A 


— 


— 





— . 


— 





Beets 


— 


— 


E 


E 


A 
B 


A 
B 


A 
B 


A 





— 


— 




Borecole or kale 




Broccoli 


— 


E 


E 


B 


B 


B 


— . 


— 


H 


H 


— 


. 


Bi ussels Sprouts 


— 


— 


— 


— 


B 


B 


— 


— 


— 


— 








Cabbage, all kinds. . . 


— 


E 


E 


B 


B 


B 








H 


H 









G 
G 


E 
G 
E 
E 


E 
F 
E 
E 


B 
A 
B 
B 


B 
A 
B 
B 


B 
A 
B 
B 


A 


- 


- 




— 




Carrot 








Celery and Celeriac. . . 







- 


- 


E 
C 

F 


E 
C 

A 


A 
C 
A 


A 
A 


A 


A 
C 


C 


I 


- 




Chervil 




Chicory 





Collard 


— 


— . 


— 


— 


— 


— 


A 


A 


A 


— 





__ 


Corn, field 


— 


— 


— 


A 


A 


A 


— 


— 


— 


— 








Corn, pop 


— 


— 


. — . 


A 


A 


A 







— 











Corn, salad 


— 


— 


F 


A 


A 


A 





— 


H 


— 





, 




G 


G 

G 


G 
E 

F 


C 
E 
B 
B 


C 
A 
B 
B 


C 

A 

B 


C 


A 
G 


G 


- 


- 








Dill 




I'.ggplant 




Endive 


G 


G 


A 
E 


B 

A 
B 


B 
A 
B 


B 
B 


B 
B 


A 


I 




— 








Kohl Rabi 





l.eek 


— 


E 


E 


B 


B 


B 




— 


— 











Lettuce 


<4 


E 


F 


B 


C 


r 


r 


A 


1 


J 


H 





Mangel 






F 


A 


A 


A 













Marjoram 


H 


H 


H 


K 


F 


J 
A 


(; 














. 


Martynia 










A 




. 











__ 


Melon, musk 


G 


G 


G 


E 


A 


A 


T 


G 


— 


— 








Melon, water 


G 


G 


G 


E 


A 


A 


T 


(; 


— 


— 








Mushroom 


K 


K 


I 












1, 


K 


K 


K 


K 


Mustard 


M 


M 


M 


A 


A 


A 


— 


A 


A 


M 


M 


M 




— 


— 


E 


A 
E 


A 
C 


C 


C 


— 


— 


— 


— 




Okra 







G 


E 
G 


E 


B 

A 


B 
A 


A 


A 


— 


— 


— 


— 




Parsley 





Parsnip 


— 


. — 


F 


A 


A 


A 


— 


— 


— 


— 








Pea 


M 


E 
M 


F 

E 

M 


C 
E 
M 


C 
B 
A 


C 

A 


C 


A 


M 


A 
M 


M 




Pepper 




Peppergrass 


A/f 


Potato 








A 


A 







_ 












M 


M 


M 


E 
D 


A 
D 


A 
D 


— 


— 


T 


I 


— 




Radish 





Radish, winter 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


A 


A 






. 





Rutabaga. . 


• — 


— 


— 


— 


— 


. — 


— 


A 


A 


— 


__ 





Sage 


— 


. — 


F 


B 


B 


— . 







__ 











Salsify 


— 


— 


F 


A 


— 


— 


— 


A 


A 


— 








Savory 


— 


— 


I-; 


B 


B 


— 


















Scorzonera 


— ■ 


— 


F 


A 


A 


A 


— 


— . 


— 











Sea kale 


— 


— 


F 


A 


A 


A 




















Skirret 




E 


E 
F 


B 

A 


B 

A 


— 


■ — 


I 



I 
C 


H 
I 


— 




Spinach 


— 



3i8 



PLANT PROPAGATION 
Propagation of Vegetables from Seeds 



Kinds of Vegetables 


c 


J3 


s 


D, 

< 


1 


a 

3 


3 
■—1 


6C 

3 
< 


a 
c/2 


O 





c 


Squash 


G 


G 

A 


E 

E 
E 
A 
A 


E 
B 
B 

A 


A 
B 
B 

A 


A 
B 


A 


G 

A 


G 


G 


- 


- 







Turnip 

Witloof 


- 



KEY TO VEGETABLE PROPAGATION TABLE 

^. Sow in open ground; thin plants to proper distances. 

B. Sow in garden seed bed and transplant to permanent quarters. 

C. Sow twice in open ground during month. 

D. Sow thrice in open ground during month. 

E. Start in hotbed; plant in open when weather and soil favor. 

F. Sow outdoors as soon as open ground can be worked. 
G. Grow only in hotbed or greenhouse. 

H. Sow in coldframe; protect winter; plant out in spring. 

/. Sow in open ground; protect with litter during winter. 

J. Plant in frame; cover with sash and straw mats during cold weather. 

K. Plant in cellar, barn or under benches in greenhouse. 

L. Plant out-doors in prepared beds. 

M. Sow weekly in greenhouse or frame for succession. 

Note L For last planting of bean, sweet corn, kohl rabi, pea, radish, and tomato 
use quickest maturing varieties. 

Note 2. Late sowings of salsify and scorzonera may remain unprotected in 
ground over winter. Roots will be larger following fall than spring-sown ones. 



INDEX 



r;lKe 

A 

Acids in germination 27 

Annuals, defined 5 

Apples, dwarf 195 

Apple stock for pear 190 

Apple stocks 192 

Art, definition 1 

B 

Baco on grape grape grafting.... 118 

Bailey, quoted 153 

Bailhacke on stocks 189 

Bandages, waxed 224 

Bass, defined 225 

Buds grafted 250 

Bergerstein on germination 25 

Biennials, defined 5 

"Blind Eyes" 100 

Booth, quoted 143, 189 

Borlase's seed analysis 41 

Bottom heat 86 

Briailles, de, on graft storing. . . . 225 

Bridge grafting. 230 

Browning of cuttings 118 

Bu;'s, classes of 104 

Buds, latent 105 

Buds, leaf 105 

Bulb, defined 70 

Bulb industry in U. S 80 

Bulblets, production of 72 

Bulblet synonyms 71 

Bulb propagation, easter lily.... 73 

Bulbs, care of 78, 79 

Bulbs, classes of 73 

Bulbs, "Dutch" defined 71 

Budded stock, spring care 263 

Budding annular 265 

Budding apples 264 

Budding cherry 205 

Budding, chip 265 

Budding, dormant 255 

Budding, flute 265 

Budding, H- 265 

Budding, June 263 

Budding, methods 255 

Budding old peach trees 266 

Budding, plate 264 

Budding, prong 265 

Budding, ring 265 

Budding, shield 256 

Budding, time 256 

Budding, tubular 266 

Budding, veneer 265 



Page 

Budding, whistle 266 

Budding, winter 266 

Budding, wood 258 

C 

Cactus grafting 251 

Callus, defined 100 

Callus pits 1 19 

Caulicle, defined 20 

Charcoal for graft storing 225 

Chemicals in germination 27 

Cherry budding 205 

Cherry grafting 205 

Cherry stocks 201 , 204 

Chimeras, plant 181 

Cicatrization 161 

Cion, defined 132 

Cion fumigation 277 

Cion, selection 219 

Cion shipping, long distance 220 

Citrus propagation 207 

Close on top grafting 238 

Conifer grafting 253 

Corbett on "blind eyes" 101 

Corm production 77 

Cotyledons, number or 8 

Cover crops in nurseries 273 

Crab stocks 192 

Crandall, quoted 156 

Crocker, on delayed germination.. 38 

"Crocks" defined 62 

Crown, defined 81 

Cummings, on seed size 36 

Cuttage, defined 95 

Cutting, storage 122 

Cuttings, budding greenwood 126 

Cuttings, browning of 118 

Cuttings, burying 121 

Cuttings, classes of Ill 

Cuttings, evergreen 118 

Cuttings, "flagging'- or 125 

Cuttings for dwarf plants 119 

Cuttings, influence of climate on.. 97 

Cuttings, "June struck" 122 

Cuttings, leaf 129 

Cuttings, long kept alive 128 

Cuttings, mature wood 114 

Cuttings, parts used for green.... 124 

Cuttings, plant parts used Ill 

Cuttings, rhizome 114 

Cuttings, root Ill 

Cuttings, rose 118 

Cuttings, semi-hardwood 121 



319 



320 



INDEX 



Cuttings, shipping 106 

Cuttings, soft wood 123, 125 

Cuttings, stem 114 

Cuttings, transplanting 123 

Cycle, duration of life 4 

Cycle, life 3 

D 

Damages from tree sales 290 

Oamping-off 51 

Daniel's generalizations 159 

Degrully, on grape grafting 212 

De Meulder, on hyacinth propaga- 
tion 75 

Depth to plant 25 

Dibbling, in grafts 236 

Digging stock 270 

Division, defined 80 

Doucin stocks 194 

Double working 196 

Dressings for wounds 226 

Duvel, seed table 49 

Dwarf apple stocks ' 194 

Dwarf plants from cuttings 119 

Dwarfing 195 

E 

Eggplant, grafted 251 

Embryo, structure of 8 

English grafting 248 

Environment, defined 4 

Enzymes in germination 27 

"Eyes, blind" 100 

r 

Fertilization of ftowers 9 

Fertilization, process of flower. ... 9 

Filing seeds for sprouting 28 

Fire fanging 93 

"Flagging" of cuttings 125 

Flat, defined 63 

Flower, essential organs 8 

Flower pots 56 

Fraser, quoted 187 

Freezing seeds 31 

Fumigation, cions 277 

Fumigation, greenhouse 278 

Fumigation, house 277 

G 

Galloway, on seed sTze 36 

Gazeau, on strawberry propagation 69 

Geotropism 171 

Germination, aids to 27 

Germination, defined 20 

Germination, delayed. 36, 38 

Germination factors 21 

Germplasm 175 

Graft breakage 141 

Graft, effects on seed 171 

Graft hybrids 181 

Graft storage 236 



Graft-wrappmg experiments 224 

Graftage, classification 227, 229 

Graftage, defined 131 

Graftage, importance of 136 

Graftage laws 160 

Graftage, limits 147 

Graftage, necessity of 133 

Graftage, nurserymen's reasons for 182 

Graftage, objects of 132 

Graftage, rules 149 

Graftage, unnatural 155 

Graftage vs cuttage 156 

Grafted plants short lived 156 

Grafted vs seedling orchards.... 157 

Grafting, adjuvant 253 

Grafting, a makeshift l"55 

Grafting, bridge 230 

Grafting, cactus 251 

Grafting, cherry 205 

Grafting, cleft 239, 244 

Grafting, crown 247 

Grafting, cutting 248 

Grafting, Daniel on mixed 252 

Grafting, denounced 154 

Grafting, end-to-end 253 

Grafting, fruit bud 253 

Grafting grapes 211, 212, 213 

Grafting, herbaceous 166, 249 

Grafting, irons 241 

Grafting, Smith's method 248 

Grafting, mixed 251 

Grafting, notch 248 

Grafting, produces disease 160 

Grafting, root 231 

Grafting, saddle 253 

Grafting, side 246 

Grafting, speed in 241 

Grafting, splice 248 

Grafting, top 238 

Grafting, tubes 249 

Grafting, veneer 244 

Grafts, classes of 160 

Grafts, in moss and charcoal.... 225 

Grafts, piece root 232 

Grafts, whole rooT 232 

Grades of trees 282 

Grape grafting 211, 212, 213 

Grape, grafting, green 253 

Grape stock influence 215 

Green, S B., on summer propa- 
gation 97 

Greiner, on rose ringing 118 

Growth, cause of length 20 



Hansen, quoted 194 

Heat, bottom 86 

Hedrick, quoted 176, 195, 201 

Henderson's, potting record at 57 

Hermann, Van, on eggplant grafting 251 

Hilum, defined 8 

Horse radish from seed 8 

Hoskins, on nut vitality 35 



INDEX 



321 



Page 

Howard, on seed rest period 15 

Hyacinth propagation 75 

Hybrid, defined 9 

Hybridization, asexual 173 

Hypocotyl, defined 20 

I 

Inarching 227, 229 

Incubator, grafts in 237 

Inlaying 247 

Irons, grafting 241 

Inspection legislation, uniform 

nmrsery 289 

K 

Kerr, quoted 201 

Knives, budding 260 

Knives, grafting 232 

Knocking-out, defined 61 

Ii 

Layerage, defined 64 

Layering, kinds of 64 

Laws, nursery 287 

Leroux, on apple stocks 189 

Lettuce, transplanting 60 

Light hinders germination.... 24, 25 

Lilies, Easter, from seed 74 

Lily disease 74 

Lopping tops 209 

VL 

Machine for graft wrapping 235 

Macoun, on Northern Spy seedlings 136 

Markey's potting record 57 

Morse, on dodder 43 

Micropyle, defined 7 

Moisture regulation 100 

Moss for graft storing 225 

"Moss," on potted plants 63 

Myers, on seed testing 50 

Nowoczek, on re-germination 33 

Nursery, cover crops 273 

Nursery, management 269 

Nursery, laws 287 

Nursery, laying out 269 

Nursery, soils 270 

Nursery, stock buying 280 

Nursery, stock by mail 287 

Nursery stock, cost 280 

Nursery stock diseases 290 

Nursery stock storing 275 

Nursery, winter protection in 275 

Offset, defined 81 

O 

Oliver, on keeping cuttings alive.. 128 

Oliver, on Mango budding 254 

Optimum of growth factors 22 



Oven, propagating 89 

Ovule structure 9 

Oxygen, in germination 25 

P 

Packing, for shipment 284 

Paradise stocks 194 

Peach stocks 199 

Peach, topworking 266 

Pedigreed trees 183, 186 

Pear on apple stocks 190 

Pear on quince 189, 196 

Pear, propagation 19S 

Pear stocks, origin of 197 

Pears, spring budded 199 

Tears, Yeoman's dwarf 164 

Perennials, defined 5 

Pericarp, kinds of 10 

Phloem, defined 146 

Phylloxena 215 

Pistil, structure of 9 

Plants by mail 287 

Plants, shipping 106 

Plum stocks 199 

Potatoes, grafted 250 

Potato, quick propagation 84 

Potato, sweet, propagation 84 

Pot bound plants 63 

Pots, double lOS 

Potting, care in 58 

Potting, dangers 60 

Potting, defined 54 

Potting, operation of 57 

Potting, soil 54 

Propagation, classes of 8 

Propagation, natural 1 

Pricking-out 53 

Protection in nurseries 275 

Q 

Quince for pear 196 

B 

Radicle, defined 21 

Raffia, defined 225 

Ravaz, on cutting browning 119 

Ravaz, on grape grafting 215 

Reciprocal influence of stock and 

cion 167 

Re-germination of seeds 38 

Repair grafting 230 

Reviere on stocks 189 

Rhizome cuttings 114 

Rhizome, defined 80 

Ringing roses 118 

Roberts, on nursery soils 272 

Root grafted vs budded trees.... 216 

Root grafting 231 

Root grafts, making 233 

Root grafts, whole 232 

Roots on stem cuttings 106 

Roots, origin of 102 



322 



INDEX 



Root vs top grafting 237 

Rose cuttings '1^ 

Rose, ringing 118 

Rose, stocks 206, 207 

Roses, grafted, for forcing 207 

Rosette, defined 83 

Rubber for grafting 224 

Runner, defined 68 

S 

Sablon, Le Clerc du, quoted.. ISl, 196 

Scalding seeds 33 

Science, definition 1 

Scott, on grafted roses 207 

Screens for shading 109 

Seed analysis 41 

Seed, defined 7 

Seed dissemination 12 

Seed freezing 31 

Seed, graft characters from 171 

Seed, longevity in Missouri 35 

Seed, losses from low grade.... 42 

Seed pans 56 

Seed, regermination 38 

Seed, size influence 36 

Seed, soaking 32 

Seed, testing 40 

Seed-testing conveniences 45 

Seed-testing questions 214 

Seed, transportation 13 

Seed, vitality 34, 35 

Seedlings, apple 191 

Seeds, fictitious age of 12 

Seeds, rest period of 14 

Seeds, scalding 33 

Seeds, sowing very small 26 

Seeds, unreliability of 135 

Separation ' ' 

Shading 108 

Shelters 269 

Shifting plants 61 

Shipping plants and trees 284 

Smith Bros, quoted 201 

Smith's English grafting 248 

Soil for potting 54 

Somatoplasm 1^5 

Sowing, time of 23 

Spore, defined 6 

Soort, defined 112 

Spraying, nursery stock 277 

Standard, defined 191 

Standardization of nursery stock. . 283 

Stewart, quoted 186, 218 

Stock and cion reciprocal influence 167 

Stock breeding, necessity for 184 

Stock, defined 132 

Stock, effect of small growing.... 189 

Stock, effects on cion 176 

Stock plants, defined 100 

Stocks, apple 192 



Tnae 

Stocks, cherry 201, 204 

Stocks, citrus 209 

Stocks, for fruit trees 176 

Stocks, for weeping traes 190 

Stocks, French investigators on.... 1S9 
Stocks, hardy, for tender varieties 179 

Stocks, in top grafting 186 

Stocks, peach 199 

Stocks, pear 197 

Stocks, plum 199 

Stocks, quince 196 

Stocks, rose 206 

Stocks, slow maturing 189 

Stolon, defined 80 

Stratification 29 

Strawberry propagation, rapid.... 69 

String, waxed 223 

Stringfellow on sucker influence. . . . 266 

Sucker influence 266 

Suckers, defined 101 

T 

Temperature in germination 23 

Tomato propagation 60 

Top grafting 23 •* 

Trabut, on grape grafting 215 

Trees, own rooted 191 

Trial grounds, value of 41 

Tuber cuttings 112 

Tuber, defined 84 

Tubes grafting 249 



Union, physical strength of... 141, 143 

V 

Variation, bud, defined 112 

Viala, on cutting browning 119 

Vilmorin seed table 49 

W 

Water in germination 22 

Water sprouts defined 101 

Wax, grafting 220 

Wax, use of 150 

Wellhouse, quoted 219 

Wernicke's hot water experiments.. 33 

Whilten, on seed rest period 15 

Whole vs piece root 218 

Wound dressings 226 

X 

Xylem, defined 147 

■y 

Yeoman's dwarf pears 164 



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Farmer's Cyclopedia 
of Aijriculture in ^ 

A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Prac- 
tice on Farm, Orchard and Garden Crops, and the 
Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals 

Bj^ EARLEY VERNON WILCOX. Ph. D 
arib CLARENCE BEAMAN SMITH, M. S 

Associate Editors in the Office of Experiment Stations, United States 
Department oj Agriculture 



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